Enzymes

Bromelain

Bromelain

Bromelain is a standardized mixture of cysteine proteases extracted from pineapple (Ananas comosus) stems and fruit that has been used clinically and nutraceutically as an anti-inflammatory, anti‑edema, fibrinolytic and digestive aid. This encyclopedia-level article synthesizes biochemical identity, history, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action, clinical benefits, safety, drug interactions, practical dosing guidance for the US market, quality-selection criteria, and research limitations — written for clinicians, formulary specialists, and informed consumers who want evidence-based, actionable information.

Papain

Papain

Papain is a plant-derived cysteine protease (~23.4 kDa) extracted from the latex of the papaya tree (Carica papaya) that digests protein substrates and has long uses in food processing, topical enzymatic wound debridement, and as an oral digestive enzyme supplement. This evidence-based guide synthesizes biochemical identity, mechanism of action, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, safety, dosing guidance used in commercial products, U.S.-specific regulatory context (FDA/NIH), product-selection criteria, and practical consumer tips. Key takeaways: papain acts extracellularly to hydrolyze proteins (including fibrin and denatured collagen), topical formulations are used for enzymatic debridement with primarily local activity, oral bioavailability of intact enzyme is negligible (activity is luminal), and allergic respiratory sensitization is the most important safety risk. For precise trial citations (PMIDs/DOIs) and a custom PubMed extraction of RCTs or systematic reviews, please authorize a live literature search and I will append validated references.

Pankreatin

Pancreatin

Pancreatin is a standardized mixture of pancreatic digestive enzymes (lipase, amylase, proteases) derived predominantly from porcine pancreas and used clinically as pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT) for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). This premium, evidence-oriented guide explains what pancreatin is, how it works at molecular and clinical levels, who benefits, how to dose it safely (lipase units/kg and per meal), formulation and bioavailability differences (enteric-coated microspheres vs non‑enteric powders), safety signals (including pediatric fibrosing colonopathy risk), key drug interactions (e.g., orlistat, bile acid sequestrants, warfarin), and practical product-selection criteria for the US market (FDA-regulated pancrelipase brands, USP/NSF/ConsumerLab guidance). Clear, actionable recommendations and attention to regulatory context (prescription vs OTC) equip clinicians and informed consumers to make safe, effective choices while emphasizing that verified diagnosis and medical supervision are required for EPI treatment.

Lipase

Triacylglycerol lipase

Lipase is the primary enzymatic catalyst of dietary fat digestion: pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes >90% of meal triglycerides into 2‑monoacylglycerol and free fatty acids for absorption. Clinically, standardized porcine-derived pancrelipase (enteric‑coated microspheres) is the evidence‑based therapy for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), producing measurable reductions in steatorrhea and improvements in weight and fat‑soluble vitamin status within weeks. Over‑the‑counter microbial or non‑enteric lipase supplements are widely used for occasional postprandial bloating but show variable activity and limited high‑quality evidence for EPI. This article provides an exhaustive, science‑first, US‑focused encyclopedia entry: identification, history, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, eight+ evidence‑based benefits with quantitative study summaries, up‑to‑date dosing guidance, drug interactions (including orlistat antagonism), safety signals (including historical pediatric fibrosing colonopathy thresholds), selection criteria for US products (FDA vs DSHEA, USP/NSF/ConsumerLab guidance), practical consumer tips, and concise recommendations for clinicians and informed consumers.

Amylase

Alpha-amylase

Amylase is a family of starch‑digesting enzymes (primarily alpha‑amylases, EC 3.2.1.1) that catalyze hydrolysis of internal α‑1,4 glycosidic bonds in dietary starch, producing maltose, maltotriose and limit dextrins. Produced endogenously in human saliva (AMY1) and pancreas (AMY2) and industrially via microbial fermentation, amylases are used clinically as biomarkers (serum amylase for pancreatitis) and nutraceutically in digestive enzyme supplements. Typical over‑the‑counter formulations are measured in enzymatic activity units (commonly thousands to tens of thousands of units per serving) rather than milligrams; enteric‑coated beads retain >50% activity to the duodenum in many validated products. This premium article synthesizes enzymology, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, dosing strategies, safety, drug interactions, product selection criteria for the U.S. market, and practical consumer guidance — emphasizing evidence levels, mechanism, and regulatory context (FDA/NIH). Note: I am using the comprehensive primary dossier you provided as the evidence base in this session; I can fetch and append live PubMed IDs/DOIs and updated 2020–2026 trial citations on request.

Protease

Protease

Laktase

Beta-galactosidase

<p><strong>Approximately 30–40% of U.S. adults have lactase non‑persistence and may experience symptoms when they ingest lactose-containing dairy.</strong> Lactase (β‑galactosidase) is the digestive enzyme that cleaves lactose into glucose and galactose and is available as oral supplements and industrial preparations. This premium, evidence-focused guide explains what lactase is, how it works biochemically and clinically, how oral supplements are produced and formulated, and when and how to use them safely in the U.S. market. The article synthesizes molecular biology (including the LCT gene regulatory variants), pharmacokinetics of luminal enzymes, formulation science (chewables, enteric coated, drops), clinical benefits with cited studies and practical dosing strategies for adults and infants. Regulatory, quality-selection and retailer guidance is provided for U.S. consumers (FDA/NIH context; USD pricing ranges; Amazon/iHerb/GNC/Vitacost distribution). Wherever possible, claims cite peer‑reviewed literature and authoritative sources. This summary is designed for clinicians, nutritionists and informed consumers who demand rigorous, practical information about lactase supplements and lactose intolerance management.

Cellulase

Cellulase

<p><strong>Approximately 0% of human digestive enzymes can break β‑1,4 linkages in cellulose — exogenous cellulase supplements supply enzymatic activity that targets this otherwise indigestible plant polymer.</strong> Cellulase is a multi‑component enzyme complex (endo‑1,4‑β‑glucanases, cellobiohydrolases, β‑glucosidases) produced by fungi and bacteria, commercialized for industrial and supplemental uses. In the US market cellulase appears mainly in digestive enzyme blends and specialty formulations (powders, capsules, enteric‑coated preparations) intended to aid breakdown of insoluble plant fiber, reduce meal‑related bloating, and improve extractability of phytochemicals in manufacturing. This 200‑word summary synthesizes mechanistic biochemistry, pharmacokinetics in the gastrointestinal lumen, evidence from enzymology and agricultural trials, safety considerations, US‑centric regulatory guidance (FDA/NIH), practical dosing guidance, formulation selection, common drug interactions, and a rigorous checklist for quality assurance. The summary is written for clinicians, formulators and informed consumers seeking a scientifically rigorous, clinically cautious perspective: while cellulase has clear industrial and animal‑feed efficacy, high‑quality randomized controlled trials in humans for symptomatic digestive endpoints are sparse; most human use is empirical and product‑specific. Choose high‑quality, activity‑standardized products (FPU or CU), prefer enteric or microencapsulated delivery for intestinal activity, and consult a clinician if pregnant, breastfeeding, immunocompromised, or taking narrow‑therapeutic‑index medications.</p>

Invertase

Beta-fructofuranosidase

Invertase (β‑fructofuranosidase, EC 3.2.1.26) is an enzyme that hydrolyzes sucrose into equimolar glucose and fructose. Widely produced by yeasts (notably Saccharomyces cerevisiae), fungi and plants, invertase is a cornerstone industrial biocatalyst (confectionery, fermentation, fructooligosaccharide manufacture) and an established pharmaceutical product (sacrosidase/Sucraid®) for congenital sucrase–isomaltase deficiency (CSID). When taken orally the enzyme acts locally in the gastrointestinal lumen; systemic absorption of intact enzyme is negligible. Clinical evidence for therapeutic benefit is robust for sacrosidase in genetically confirmed CSID, but sparse for general digestive‑aid claims. This article provides an evidence‑forward, US‑oriented, encyclopedic review of invertase: identification, history, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, eight science‑backed benefits with supporting citations and practical guidance on dosing, safety, drug interactions, contraindications, product selection and market context (FDA/NIH perspective).

Maltase

Alpha-glucosidase

Maltase (alpha‑glucosidase activity) is a digestive enzyme class that hydrolyzes maltose and short α‑1,4 oligosaccharides to glucose in the small intestine; human intestinal maltase activity is mainly provided by two brush‑border glycoproteins — maltase‑glucoamylase (MGAM) and sucrase‑isomaltase (SI). This 2,000‑word, evidence‑focused guide reviews identification, history, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical benefits, safety, drug interactions, dosing considerations, product quality criteria, and practical advice for US consumers and clinicians. It emphasizes that oral enzyme supplements act locally in the gut lumen, are variably protected by formulation (enteric coating and microencapsulation improve delivery), and lack large randomized controlled trials for maltase‑only supplementation in 2020–2026. Regulatory context (FDA/DSHEA), product selection (NSF/USP), and pragmatic dosing/timing recommendations are provided for informed use.

Pepsin

Pepsin A

Pepsin is an acidic gastric protease (optimum pH ~1.5–2.0) that initiates protein digestion; commercially it is supplied as porcine- or bovine-derived pepsin (or recombinant) and is used industrially, diagnostically (salivary pepsin for reflux) and as an ingredient in digestive enzyme supplements. This evidence-based guide explains molecular biology, clinical rationale, dosage paradigms used in nutraceuticals (commonly 125–500 mg per dose in supplements), safety, drug interactions, product selection for the US market, and practical consumer guidance. Note: high‑quality randomized trials of oral pepsin for symptomatic digestive disorders are limited; many mechanistic and diagnostic studies exist. For a verified bibliography with PMIDs/DOIs, allow a live literature pull and I will return fully validated citations.

Trypsin

Trypsin

Trypsin is a well-characterized serine protease (EC 3.4.21.4) that preferentially cleaves peptide bonds C-terminal to lysine and arginine and is a core digestive enzyme in the pancreas; purified forms are used medically for topical debridement and analytically in laboratories. This evidence-based guide explains what trypsin is, its biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, safety, drug interactions, quality-selection criteria for U.S. consumers, and practical dosing/usage guidance adapted for the U.S. market (FDA/NIH context).

Chymotrypsin

Chymotrypsin

Chymotrypsin is a pancreatic serine protease of approximately <strong>25,000 Daltons</strong> that cleaves peptide bonds after aromatic amino acids and is used both in prescription pancreatic enzyme replacement therapies and in over-the-counter proteolytic enzyme supplements for digestion and adjunctive anti-inflammatory use. This guide synthesizes biochemical fundamentals, pharmacokinetics, clinical uses, safety, dosing patterns common in the US market, product selection criteria, and practical consumer guidance for physicians, pharmacists, and informed consumers. It emphasizes that high-quality human pharmacokinetic and randomized controlled trial data isolating oral chymotrypsin are limited and that many clinical effects are reported for multi-enzyme formulations (trypsin + chymotrypsin or broader proteolytic blends). For regulatory context, chymotrypsin marketed as a dietary supplement in the United States falls under DSHEA, while pharmaceutical pancreatic enzyme preparations are regulated by the FDA as drugs or prescription products.

Alpha-Galaktosidase

Alpha-galactosidase

Alpha-galactosidase is a targeted digestive enzyme used by millions worldwide to reduce gas and bloating from legumes and certain vegetables by hydrolyzing α‑galactosyl linkages (raffinose-family oligosaccharides). This premium, evidence-focused guide (clinically oriented and US-market adapted) explains what alpha‑galactosidase is, how it works in the gut, the differences between dietary fungal enzymes and therapeutic recombinant human enzymes, practical dosing strategies, formulation choices (enteric-coated vs uncoated), safety considerations, drug interaction cautions, product-quality criteria for US consumers, and a concise practical plan for using the enzyme with meals. The article is written for clinicians, nutrition professionals, and informed consumers: it emphasizes mechanistic clarity, realistic benefit expectations, and regulatory distinctions (dietary supplement vs biologic drug). If you want verifiable PMIDs/DOIs for all cited clinical trials and recent 2020–2026 studies added directly into the text, I can perform a targeted literature search and append full citations on request.

Serrapeptase

Serratiopeptidase

Serrapeptase (serratiopeptidase) is a zinc‑dependent proteolytic enzyme originally isolated from Serratia bacteria associated with the silkworm gut; commercial enteric‑coated supplements supply activity‑units (commonly 20,000–120,000 SPU per day) and are used as mucolytic and anti‑inflammatory adjuncts. This 2,000‑word, clinically focused encyclopedia article summarizes identification, biochemical properties, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence for eight clinical benefits, dosing guidance, drug interactions, safety, US regulatory context, product selection criteria and practical tips for clinicians and informed consumers. The article highlights limitations in high‑quality human pharmacokinetic data and clinical trial heterogeneity and includes structured sections, concise takeaways and practical recommendations for the US market.

Nattokinase

Subtilisin NAT

Nattokinase is a bacterial serine protease (~27.7 kDa) derived from fermented soybeans (natto) that has potent fibrinolytic activity in vitro and is marketed in the US as a circulatory-support nutraceutical standardized by enzymatic activity (commonly 2,000 FU/day). This premium, science-focused guide summarizes identification, history, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing practice, safety, drug interactions, product-quality criteria, and practical consumer advice for the US market. The article highlights established facts (e.g., discovery in 1980, typical product units in FU), notes evidence strength for each clinical claim, and explains regulatory context under DSHEA and FDA expectations. Readers are guided to select enteric‑coated, activity‑standardized products with third‑party testing and to avoid nattokinase if on anticoagulants or with bleeding disorders. Important: this draft summarizes peer‑reviewed and preclinical literature up to mid‑2024 but does not include live-verified PubMed IDs/DOIs in-line — if you permit literature retrieval I will append verified PMIDs/DOIs and precise study citations per your request.

Glucoamylase

Glucan 1,4-alpha-glucosidase

Glucoamylase (amyloglucosidase, EC 3.2.1.3) is an exo-acting carbohydrate hydrolase that releases single glucose units from the non-reducing ends of starch and oligosaccharides. This comprehensive, science-focused guide explains its biochemistry, production, pharmacokinetics, plausible clinical uses, safety profile, product selection criteria for the U.S. market, and current research gaps — including why high-quality human trials are scarce and how to request a live literature search for verifiable citations.

Pektinase

Polygalacturonase

<p><strong>Pectinase is a family of pectinolytic enzymes used worldwide in food processing and, increasingly, in digestive enzyme supplements; industrial use dates to the mid-20th century and typical microbial isoforms are ~<strong>30–50 kDa</strong> in size.</strong></p><p>Pectinase (also written <em>pectinases</em>) describes enzymes that depolymerize plant pectic polysaccharides and are produced commercially by microbial fermentation (commonly <em>Aspergillus niger</em> or <em>Bacillus</em> spp.). Pectinase preparations are established tools in juice clarification, wine and food processing, and biomass valorization; in the nutraceutical market they appear primarily as components of multi‑enzyme digestive blends marketed to reduce bloating after high-pectin meals. High-quality human randomized controlled trials (RCTs) evaluating standalone oral pectinase supplements are lacking as of 2026; most evidence is biochemical, industrial, in vitro, or animal-based. This article summarizes biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, safety, dosing patterns used in supplements, selection criteria for U.S. products, and practical recommendations for clinicians and informed consumers.</p>

Hemicellulase

Hemicellulase

Hemicellulase is a mixture of microbial enzymes (xylanases, mannanases, arabinofuranosidases and related activities) used to break down plant hemicellulose; oral enzyme preparations are marketed in the U.S. as digestive aids to improve tolerance of high‑fiber meals, and industrially to improve feed efficiency and food processing. Clinical evidence in humans is currently limited; most high‑quality data come from food science, in vitro enzymology and animal feed trials.

Phytase

Myo-inositol hexakisphosphate phosphohydrolase

Phytase is a digestive enzyme that hydrolyzes phytic acid (myo-inositol hexakisphosphate, IP6) and thereby increases the bioavailability of iron, zinc, calcium and phosphorus from plant-based foods. This premium encyclopedia article synthesizes biochemical mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, clinical and translational evidence, safety and drug interactions, practical dosing guidance for the U.S. market, and product-selection criteria. The review is based on academic literature up to June 2024 and clearly flags items that require live literature verification (2020–2026 PMIDs/DOIs) on request. Practical recommendations emphasize enzyme activity units (FTU), timing with meals, and integration for people eating predominantly plant-based diets or with increased mineral requirements.

Betain-HCl mit Pepsin

Betaine hydrochloride with Pepsin

Betaine HCl with Pepsin is a two-component digestive nutraceutical combining an acidifying salt (betaine hydrochloride) and a porcine-derived gastric protease (pepsin) to support the stomach phase of digestion. It is marketed primarily to adults with suspected or symptomatic hypochlorhydria (low stomach acid) to restore a transiently acidic gastric lumen (pH < 3) and supply proteolytic activity that facilitates protein denaturation and cleavage. Betaine HCl acts immediately as a local source of H+ and Cl- to lower gastric pH, while pepsin (active at pH ≈ 1.5–2.5) hydrolyzes peptide bonds preferentially at hydrophobic residues. Clinical uses in the U.S. nutraceutical market include post-meal support for protein digestion, adjunctive support for non-heme iron and B12 bioavailability, and supervised diagnostic challenge testing for suspected hypochlorhydria. High-quality randomized controlled trials of the combined product are limited; most evidence is mechanistic, in vitro, or observational. Typical over-the-counter dosing ranges from 325–650 mg betaine HCl per meal with standardized pepsin activity; safety concerns include mucosal irritation, potential exacerbation of peptic ulcer disease, and interactions with acid-suppressing drugs (PPIs/H2RAs). Consumers should choose GMP-manufactured products with third-party Certificate of Analysis and consult clinicians before use.

Ochsengalle-Extrakt

Fel Tauri

Ox bile extract (bovine bile) is a dried, processed mixture of primary bile acids and their <em>glycine</em>/<em>taurine</em> conjugates used as an over‑the‑counter digestive aid to support fat emulsification and absorption. Typical consumer dosing is <strong>150–500 mg per meal</strong>, commonly provided in enteric‑coated capsules or combination products with pancreatic enzymes. Mechanistically, ox bile supplies luminal bile salts that form mixed micelles with dietary lipids and phospholipids, enhancing pancreatic lipase access and fat‑soluble vitamin uptake; bile acids also act as signaling molecules via the nuclear receptor <em>FXR</em> and membrane receptor <em>TGR5</em>, modulating metabolism and gut–liver signaling. Evidence for immediate digestive benefit is physiologically plausible and supported by bile acid biology, but high‑quality randomized trials of commercial ox bile supplements are limited. In the US market ox bile is regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA and is widely available; product selection should prioritize GMP manufacturing, certificate of analysis, and third‑party testing for purity and heavy metals.

Dipeptidylpeptidase IV

Dipeptidyl peptidase-4

<p><strong>Approximately 766 amino acids compose human Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (DPP‑4), a ubiquitous serine exopeptidase that cleaves X‑Pro/X‑Ala dipeptides and regulates incretin hormones central to glucose homeostasis.</strong></p><p>Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (DPP‑4, also known as CD26) is a membrane‑anchored and soluble serine protease that inactivates regulatory peptides such as GLP‑1 and GIP, modulates immune signaling, and is the pharmacologic target of the DPP‑4 inhibitor class of antidiabetic drugs (gliptins).</p><p>This premium, evidence‑based guide synthesizes biochemistry, pharmacology, clinical benefits, safety, drug interactions, regulatory context (FDA/NIDDK), product selection guidance for the US market, and practical consumer recommendations.</p><p>Important: DPP‑4 as an endogenous enzyme is not an approved oral dietary supplement; therapeutic modulation is achieved clinically with prescription DPP‑4 inhibitors (e.g., sitagliptin 100 mg, linagliptin 5 mg). If you need a validated literature update (2020–2026) with PubMed IDs/DOIs, please authorize a targeted literature retrieval; this report uses the supplied primary dataset and regulatory sources.</p>

Vollspektrum-Verdauungsenzyme

Multi-enzyme complex

Full Spectrum Digestive Enzymes are multi-enzyme dietary supplements designed to support luminal digestion of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates; they combine proteases, lipases, amylases, lactase, alpha‑galactosidase and sometimes bile salts or betaine HCl. This encyclopedia-level summary explains origins, chemistry, mechanisms, clinical uses, dosing principles, safety, drug interactions, quality criteria (US market), and practical consumer guidance. NOTE: I can generate a study-by-study evidence table with verified PubMed IDs / DOIs if you allow me to search PubMed now — I cannot fabricate PMIDs.

Wobenzym

Systemic enzyme blend

Wobenzym is a proprietary systemic enzyme blend—an enteric-tablet nutraceutical that combines multiple proteolytic enzymes (commonly bromelain, papain, trypsin, chymotrypsin) with the flavonoid rutin to produce anti‑inflammatory, fibrinolytic and immune‑modulatory effects. Typical labelled regimens range from <strong>2–6 tablets per day</strong>, and clinical protocols for acute injury and postoperative recovery frequently use higher short‑term dosing for 7–14 days while osteoarthritis trials commonly use 8–12 weeks. Evidence across decades includes mechanistic in vitro/animal work and randomized trials of heterogeneous quality; overall the literature suggests potential benefits for reducing swelling, accelerating recovery, and modest symptomatic improvement in mild‑to‑moderate osteoarthritis, but definitive high‑quality large RCT data are limited. This article synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical uses, dosing strategies, safety, drug interactions, quality selection and practical guidance for US consumers and clinicians.