Minerals

Magnesium-Glycinat

Magnesium bis(2-aminoacetate)

Magnesium glycinate — scientifically known as <em>magnesium bis(2-aminoacetate)</em> — is a premium chelated form of magnesium in which two glycine amino-acid molecules are bound to a single magnesium(II) ion, forming a stable, highly bioavailable complex. Unlike inorganic salts such as magnesium oxide, the chelate structure protects the mineral from premature dissociation in gastric acid, dramatically improving gastrointestinal tolerability and net absorption. Magnesium is an essential macromineral involved in over 300 enzymatic reactions, including ATP stabilization, DNA synthesis, protein synthesis, and neuromuscular transmission. Clinical evidence supports its use for improving sleep quality, reducing muscle cramps and tension, prophylaxis of migraine headaches, modest blood pressure reduction, improved insulin sensitivity, and relief of PMS and anxiety symptoms. Glycine, the chelating ligand, independently functions as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the spinal cord and a co-agonist at NMDA receptors in the brain, potentially amplifying the calming effects of magnesium. In the US market, magnesium glycinate is classified as a dietary supplement under DSHEA (1994), regulated by the FDA under cGMP standards. It represents one of the most recommended forms for individuals sensitive to GI side effects of other magnesium salts, and it is widely available from major US retailers at accessible price points.

Magnesium-Citrat

Trimagnesium dicitrate

Magnesium citrate — chemically designated <em>trimagnesium dicitrate</em> — is a highly bioavailable mineral salt formed by the neutralization of citric acid with magnesium. As both a dietary supplement and an over-the-counter osmotic laxative, it stands among the most clinically relevant and widely studied magnesium compounds available in the US market. Unlike the poorly absorbed magnesium oxide, magnesium citrate delivers fractional absorption rates of approximately 20–40%, making it a preferred choice for correcting hypomagnesemia, supporting cardiometabolic health, and alleviating constipation. Magnesium itself is an essential macromineral, serving as a cofactor for more than 300 enzymatic reactions — spanning ATP synthesis, DNA replication, neuromuscular transmission, and insulin signaling. Population data consistently show that a significant proportion of American adults fail to meet the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of 310–420 mg/day, underscoring the public health relevance of effective supplemental forms. Evidence-based applications of magnesium citrate include migraine prophylaxis, blood pressure support, glycemic control, sleep quality improvement, and muscle cramp reduction. Regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA by the FDA, magnesium citrate is considered safe at standard doses in healthy individuals, though caution is warranted in renal impairment and with certain drug classes. This guide provides a comprehensive, science-based reference for healthcare professionals and educated consumers alike.

Magnesiumoxid

Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Magnesium oxide (MgO) stands as the most widely sold magnesium supplement in the United States, primarily due to its exceptionally high elemental magnesium content—60.3% by weight—and remarkably low cost. This inorganic mineral compound, formed through calcination of magnesium carbonate at temperatures exceeding 700°C, has served medicinal purposes for centuries as both an antacid and osmotic laxative. However, modern research has revealed a critical paradox: despite containing more elemental magnesium than any other supplement form, magnesium oxide demonstrates the lowest bioavailability at approximately 4%, meaning only a small fraction of ingested magnesium reaches systemic circulation. This limitation stems from MgO's poor water solubility and its dependence on adequate gastric acid for dissolution. The compound remains highly effective for its traditional uses—neutralizing stomach acid within minutes and promoting bowel movements within hours through osmotic water retention in the intestines. For individuals seeking to correct magnesium deficiency or obtain systemic benefits such as cardiovascular support, blood pressure regulation, or migraine prevention, organic magnesium forms like glycinate, citrate, or taurate offer superior absorption. Understanding these distinctions allows consumers to select the appropriate magnesium form for their specific health goals, whether targeting gastrointestinal relief or addressing the estimated 50% of Americans who fail to meet their recommended daily magnesium intake.

Magnesium-L-Threonat

Magnesium L-threonate

Magnesium L-Threonate (MgT) represents a groundbreaking advancement in mineral supplementation, specifically engineered to cross the blood-brain barrier and elevate central nervous system magnesium levels. Developed in 2010 by Dr. Guosong Liu and colleagues at MIT and Tsinghua University, this novel compound emerged from screening over 2,000 magnesium formulations for optimal brain penetration. Unlike conventional magnesium supplements that primarily address peripheral deficiencies, MgT utilizes L-threonic acid—a natural vitamin C metabolite—as a carrier molecule to deliver magnesium directly to neural tissues. Clinical research demonstrates significant cognitive benefits, including enhanced learning and memory, reduced anxiety, improved sleep quality, and potential neuroprotective effects against age-related cognitive decline. The compound works by increasing synaptic density in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, optimizing NMDA receptor function, and elevating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. With a standard dosage of 1,500-2,000 mg daily (providing approximately 144 mg elemental magnesium), MgT has earned GRAS status and represents a paradigm shift from general magnesium supplementation to targeted neurological support.

Magnesium-Taurat

Magnesium bis(2-aminoethanesulfonate)

Magnesium Taurate is a premium organic magnesium chelate formed by coordinating one magnesium(II) cation with two deprotonated taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonate) anions, yielding the molecular formula C₄H₁₂MgN₂O₆S₂ (MW ≈272.58 g·mol⁻¹). Unlike inorganic salts such as magnesium oxide or sulfate, this dual-component formulation delivers both elemental magnesium — an essential cofactor for over 300 enzymatic reactions — and taurine, a conditionally essential amino sulfonic acid with profound roles in cardiac membrane stabilization, neuromodulation, and antioxidant defense. The compound is synthesized by neutralizing taurine with a magnesium base (oxide, hydroxide, or carbonate) under controlled aqueous conditions. Its principal clinical appeal lies in the mechanistic complementarity of its two active moieties: magnesium modulates ion-channel function, blood pressure, and neuronal excitability, while taurine stabilizes cell membranes, supports mitochondrial integrity, and attenuates adrenergic cardiovascular stress. Emerging preclinical evidence and extrapolated human data from separate magnesium and taurine trials suggest benefits for blood pressure management, cardiac arrhythmia prevention, sleep quality, migraine prophylaxis, and metabolic health. As a dietary supplement regulated under DSHEA in the United States, magnesium taurate represents one of the most scientifically compelling organic magnesium formulations available to US consumers seeking cardiovascular and neurological support.

Zink-Picolinat

Zinc bis(pyridine-2-carboxylate)

Zinc picolinate (CAS 17949-65-4) is a chelated organic zinc salt formed by coordinating zinc(II) with two picolinate (pyridine-2-carboxylate) ligands, yielding the molecular formula C₁₂H₈N₂O₄Zn and a molar mass of approximately 309.59 g/mol. Developed commercially between the 1970s and 1990s, it represents one of the most bioavailable oral zinc supplements on the US market, offering measurably superior fractional absorption compared to inorganic salts such as zinc oxide. Zinc itself is a cofactor for over 300 enzymes and participates in the structure of thousands of zinc-finger transcription factors, making adequate intake essential for immune defense, wound healing, reproductive health, sensory function, and metabolic regulation. The picolinate ligand — itself an endogenous tryptophan metabolite — chelates zinc in a bidentate fashion, conferring enhanced solubility and membrane permeability that facilitates intestinal uptake via ZIP-family transporters. Regulated in the United States as a dietary supplement under DSHEA (1994), zinc picolinate products are sold across major US retailers at $20–$40 per month's supply for mid-range chelated forms. Standard supplemental doses range from 15–30 mg elemental zinc per day, with the adult Tolerable Upper Intake Level set at 40 mg/day by the Institute of Medicine. This article delivers a comprehensive, evidence-based review of its biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, safety, drug interactions, and quality selection criteria.

Zink-Gluconat

Zinc di-D-gluconate

Zinc gluconate is a highly bioavailable organic zinc salt formed by combining the essential trace mineral zinc with gluconic acid. With the molecular formula C₁₂H₂₂O₁₄Zn and approximately 14.35% elemental zinc by weight, it ranks among the most widely used zinc supplementation forms in the United States. As a cofactor for over 300 enzymes and hundreds of zinc-finger transcription factors, zinc plays indispensable roles in immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and taste perception. Zinc gluconate's superior palatability and water solubility compared with inorganic zinc salts have made it the preferred salt for lozenges used in common cold management, as well as tablets and liquids for general supplementation. Clinical evidence supports its use in reducing pediatric diarrhea duration (WHO-recommended), slowing age-related macular degeneration progression (AREDS formulations), correcting zinc deficiency-related growth retardation, and—with appropriate lozenge formulations started within 24 hours of symptom onset—modestly shortening cold duration. The NIH Office of Dietary Supplements sets the adult Recommended Dietary Allowance at 8–11 mg elemental zinc per day, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level of 40 mg/day for chronic use. Regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA in the US, zinc gluconate is safe and well-tolerated at recommended doses, though intranasal formulations carry a serious anosmia risk and are contraindicated.

Zink-Citrat

Trizinc dicitrate

Zinc Citrate (trizinc dicitrate, Zn₃(C₆H₅O₇)₂) is a highly bioavailable organic zinc salt formed by the reaction of zinc with citric acid. Containing approximately 34% elemental zinc by weight, it stands among the most palatable and well-tolerated zinc supplement forms available in the US market. As an essential trace mineral, zinc participates in over 300 enzymatic reactions, supports immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis, and vision health, while zinc citrate's favorable taste profile makes it a preferred choice for lozenges and oral care formulations. Clinical evidence supports its role in shortening common cold duration, treating pediatric diarrhea, improving sperm quality, and slowing age-related macular degeneration progression as part of AREDS-style formulations. Regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA, zinc citrate is widely available across US retailers from Amazon to GNC. The NIH Office of Dietary Supplements sets the adult RDA at 8–11 mg elemental zinc/day, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 40 mg/day. Exceeding this threshold chronically risks copper deficiency. Drug interactions with tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones require strategic dose separation. This guide delivers a comprehensive, evidence-based review for clinicians, researchers, and educated consumers alike.

Calciumcarbonat

Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃)

Calcium carbonate (CaCO₃, CAS 471-34-1) is the world's most widely used calcium salt — a sparingly soluble white powder found naturally in limestone, chalk, marble, oyster shells, and coral. As a dietary supplement, it delivers approximately 40% elemental calcium by mass, the highest of any common calcium salt, making it exceptionally cost-effective for meeting daily calcium requirements. In the body, calcium carbonate must dissolve in gastric acid before the released Ca²⁺ ions can be absorbed primarily in the duodenum and proximal jejunum via vitamin D–regulated transporter proteins (TRPV6, calbindin-D9k) and passive paracellular diffusion. Its science-backed benefits span bone health and fracture risk reduction, rapid antacid relief, prevention of preeclampsia in pregnancy, management of hypocalcemia, and adjunctive support for blood pressure and dental mineralization. Regulated by the FDA as a dietary supplement under DSHEA and as an OTC antacid drug, it is available in chewable tablets, swallowable tablets, and powders from brands such as Tums, Caltrate, and Os-Cal. This comprehensive guide covers identification, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action, clinical evidence, dosing, synergies, interactions, safety, and quality selection — everything an informed US consumer, clinician, or researcher needs to know.

Calcium-Citrat

Tricalcium dicitrate

Calcium Citrate (CAS 813-94-5) is a highly bioavailable mineral salt formed by combining calcium with citric acid, yielding the molecular formula Ca₃(C₆H₅O₇)₂. Unlike calcium carbonate — the most common supplement form — calcium citrate dissolves independently of gastric acid, making it the preferred clinical choice for elderly individuals, proton pump inhibitor (PPI) users, and patients with achlorhydria. With approximately 21–24% elemental calcium by weight, it supports bone mineral density, prevents hypocalcemia, and — uniquely among calcium salts — elevates urinary citrate excretion, offering a measurable protective effect against recurrent calcium oxalate kidney stones. Regulated under DSHEA by the FDA, calcium citrate is widely available across US retailers and is recommended by the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements as a safe, effective form for adults unable to meet calcium needs through diet alone. Optimal dosing follows the Institute of Medicine's Dietary Reference Intakes: 1,000–1,200 mg elemental calcium per day for most adults, divided into doses ≤500 mg for maximum fractional absorption. When combined with vitamin D₃, its effects on bone remodeling and fracture prevention are significantly amplified. This guide provides a rigorous, evidence-based exploration of calcium citrate's chemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, drug interactions, and quality selection criteria for US consumers.

Eisen-Bisglycinat

Ferrous bisglycinate

Iron bisglycinate — also called ferrous bisglycinate — is a chelated, non-heme iron supplement in which one ferrous ion (Fe²⁺) is coordinated by two glycinate ligands, forming a stable 1:2 metal-to-amino-acid complex. This molecular architecture shields ionic iron from dietary inhibitors such as phytates and polyphenols, reduces free-radical-generating free iron in the gut lumen, and delivers elemental iron with markedly fewer gastrointestinal side effects than traditional ferrous sulfate. Clinical trials consistently show that ferrous bisglycinate achieves comparable or superior hemoglobin and ferritin increases relative to ferrous sulfate while producing significantly lower rates of nausea, constipation, and abdominal pain — making it the preferred choice for pregnant women, children, and anyone intolerant of conventional iron salts. Regulated in the United States as a dietary supplement under DSHEA, it is widely available at major retailers including Amazon, iHerb, GNC, and Thorne's own platform. Therapeutic doses for iron-deficiency anemia typically range from 60 to 120 mg elemental iron per day, while the NIH Office of Dietary Supplements sets the adult female RDA at 18 mg/day and the pregnancy RDA at 27 mg/day. This guide covers chemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, drug interactions, dosing, and quality selection criteria for the US market.

Eisen(II)-sulfat

Iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate

Ferrous sulfate — chemically designated <em>iron(II) sulfate heptahydrate</em> (FeSO₄·7H₂O, CAS 7782-63-0) — is the most widely used oral iron supplement in the United States, serving as the clinical gold standard for treating and preventing iron-deficiency anemia (IDA). With approximately 65 mg of elemental iron per standard 325 mg tablet, it delivers the highest elemental iron content per dose among common ferrous salts at the lowest cost. Iron is indispensable for hemoglobin synthesis, mitochondrial energy production, neurotransmitter metabolism, and immune function. Ferrous sulfate works by supplying bioavailable Fe²⁺ ions absorbed in the duodenum via the Divalent Metal Transporter 1 (DMT1), then transported through plasma as transferrin-bound iron to erythroid precursors in bone marrow. Clinical trials consistently show hemoglobin improvements of 1–2 g/dL within 4–6 weeks in IDA patients receiving therapeutic doses. Despite its proven efficacy, gastrointestinal side effects — nausea, constipation, and dark stools — affect 10–30% of users and remain the primary compliance barrier. Emerging evidence supports alternate-day dosing to maximize fractional absorption by circumventing hepcidin-mediated suppression. This comprehensive guide covers chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical benefits, drug interactions, safety, and US market guidance.

Eisen(II)-fumarat

Iron(II) fumarate

Ferrous fumarate is a pharmaceutical-grade iron(II) organic salt — molecular formula C₄H₂FeO₄, CAS 141-01-5 — containing approximately 33% elemental iron by weight, the highest among common oral ferrous salts. Used clinically since the mid-20th century, it serves as a first-line oral treatment for iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and prophylaxis during pregnancy, where the daily requirement rises to 27 mg elemental iron. Absorbed primarily in the duodenum via the DMT1 transporter, ferrous fumarate delivers bioavailable Fe²⁺ that is subsequently oxidized, bound to transferrin, and delivered to bone marrow for hemoglobin synthesis. Hemoglobin typically begins rising within 1–3 weeks of therapy; full store repletion requires 3–6 months. Gastrointestinal side effects — nausea (10–30%), constipation (10–20%), and dark stools — are the primary limitation, managed by dose adjustment or co-administration with food. Critical drug interactions include levothyroxine (separate by 4 hours), tetracyclines (separate by 2–6 hours), and fluoroquinolones. Absolute contraindications include hereditary hemochromatosis and known iron overload disorders. For US consumers, look for USP Verified or NSF-certified products with clearly labeled elemental iron content.

Kalium-Citrat

Tripotassium citrate

Potassium citrate (K₃C₆H₅O₇) is the tripotassium salt of citric acid — a dual-action mineral compound that simultaneously delivers bioavailable potassium and a metabolically active citrate anion. Approved by the FDA as a prescription drug (Urocit-K) for kidney stone prevention and renal tubular acidosis, it is also available in lower doses as a dietary supplement under DSHEA. Unlike potassium chloride, potassium citrate is metabolized in the Krebs cycle to generate bicarbonate equivalents, alkalinizing both blood and urine. This dual mechanism — raising urinary pH and increasing urinary citrate — reduces calcium oxalate and uric acid supersaturation, making it the preferred pharmaceutical agent in urology and nephrology for recurrent nephrolithiasis. Clinical trials demonstrate up to a 90% reduction in stone recurrence in hypocitraturic patients. With a molar mass of 306.39 g/mol and high oral bioavailability (~80–100% for elemental potassium), it functions across multiple therapeutic domains: hypokalemia correction, blood pressure modulation, bone preservation in chronic acidosis, and exercise-related muscle cramp prevention. Dosing ranges from 20 to 100 mEq/day depending on indication. Key risks include hyperkalemia, especially in patients with renal impairment or on RAAS inhibitors.

Kaliumchlorid

Potassium chloride (KCl)

Potassium chloride (KCl, CAS 7447-40-7) is the gold-standard pharmaceutical electrolyte supplement and the most clinically important source of supplemental potassium in modern medicine. As an ionic salt that dissociates completely into potassium (K⁺) and chloride (Cl⁻) ions in aqueous solution, KCl is essential for maintaining cellular membrane potential, cardiac rhythm, neuromuscular function, and blood pressure regulation. The human body contains approximately 3,500–4,200 mmol of total potassium, of which 98% resides intracellularly — primarily in skeletal muscle. The NIH Office of Dietary Supplements recommends an Adequate Intake (AI) of 4,700 mg of elemental potassium per day for healthy adults, yet NHANES surveys consistently show the majority of Americans fall short of this target. KCl is available in immediate-release tablets, micro-encapsulated extended-release formulations (e.g., Klor-Con, Micro-K), oral solutions, and intravenous preparations for hospital use. Its clinical applications range from hypokalemia treatment and blood pressure management to arrhythmia prevention in digoxin users. Because excess potassium can cause life-threatening hyperkalemia, the FDA limits US OTC single-unit doses to approximately 99 mg elemental potassium, making prescription-strength KCl essential for meaningful therapeutic replacement under medical supervision.

Selen-Methionin

L-Selenomethionine

Selenium (Selenomethionine) — also written as L-selenomethionine or SeMet — is the premier organic form of the essential trace mineral selenium, offering bioavailability exceeding 90% and functioning simultaneously as an antioxidant cofactor and long-term selenium reservoir in body proteins. With the IUPAC name (2S)-2-amino-4-(methylselanyl)butanoic acid and molecular formula C₅H₁₁NO₂Se, it is the structural amino-acid analogue of L-methionine with selenium replacing the sulfur atom. The adult RDA for selenium is 55 µg/day (NIH/ODS), while the Tolerable Upper Intake Level sits at 400 µg/day — a narrow therapeutic window that demands careful dosing. SeMet supports the synthesis of critical selenoproteins including glutathione peroxidases (GPX1–4) and thioredoxin reductases (TXNRD1–3), driving antioxidant defense, thyroid hormone metabolism via iodothyronine deiodinases, and immune competence. Clinical research highlights its most evidence-backed applications in autoimmune thyroiditis (Hashimoto's disease), male reproductive health, and broad antioxidant repletion in selenium-deficient individuals. The SELECT trial and subsequent meta-analyses have tempered enthusiasm for cancer-prevention use in selenium-replete adults. This guide synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical evidence, safety, drug interactions, and US-market product selection into a single authoritative reference.

Natriumselenit

Sodium selenite (Na₂SeO₃)

Selenium (Sodium Selenite) is an inorganic trace mineral supplement supplying selenium in the +4 oxidation state (selenite, SeO₃²⁻), with the chemical formula Na₂SeO₃ (CAS 10102-18-8) and a molar mass of 172.94 g/mol. Discovered as an element by Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1817 and established as biologically essential by Schwarz & Foltz in 1957, selenium is unique among micronutrients: it functions exclusively via incorporation as the 21st amino acid, selenocysteine, into a specialized family of 25 human selenoproteins. These include glutathione peroxidases (GPx1–4), thioredoxin reductases (TXNRD1–3), and iodothyronine deiodinases (DIO1–3) — enzymes critical for antioxidant defense, thyroid hormone activation, and redox homeostasis. The NIH Office of Dietary Supplements sets the adult RDA at 55 µg elemental selenium/day and the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) at 400 µg/day. Sodium selenite contains approximately 45.65% elemental selenium by mass. At nutritional doses it is safe, water-soluble, and rapidly metabolized; at pharmacological concentrations it exhibits selective pro-oxidant cytotoxicity investigated in oncology research. This guide covers its biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical evidence, dosing, drug interactions, and US market considerations.

Kupfer-Bisglycinat

Copper(II) bisglycinate

Copper bisglycinate is a chelated trace mineral supplement in which copper(II) is bound to two glycine molecules, forming the stable complex Cu(Gly)₂ with a molecular weight of 211.64 g/mol. As an amino-acid chelate, it is designed to deliver elemental copper with improved gastrointestinal tolerability and potentially enhanced bioavailability compared to inorganic salts such as copper oxide. Copper is an essential trace element required as a cofactor in at least 8 critical metalloenzymes — including cytochrome c oxidase, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase, lysyl oxidase, ceruloplasmin, and dopamine β-hydroxylase — making it indispensable for energy metabolism, antioxidant defense, connective tissue integrity, iron mobilization, and catecholamine synthesis. The NIH-established Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for adults is 0.9 mg elemental copper per day, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 10 mg/day. Copper bisglycinate is regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA in the United States and is widely available in capsules, tablets, and multivitamin formulations from brands such as Thorne, PureEncapsulations, and NOW Foods. It is absolutely contraindicated in Wilson disease. This guide covers identification, biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, and product selection criteria for the US market.

Chrom-Picolinat

Chromium(III) picolinate

Chromium picolinate — chemically designated as <em>tris(2-pyridinecarboxylato)chromium(III)</em>, CAS 14639-25-9, molecular formula C₁₈H₁₂CrN₃O₆ — is a synthetic chelate of trivalent chromium and picolinic acid developed in the 1980s to optimize the bioavailability of dietary chromium. As an essential trace mineral, chromium potentiates insulin receptor signaling through the PI3K–Akt pathway, enhances GLUT4-mediated glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, and interacts with the low-molecular-weight chromium-binding protein chromodulin. The U.S. NIH Office of Dietary Supplements (ODS) sets the Adequate Intake (AI) at 35 µg/day for adult men and 25 µg/day for adult women; therapeutic supplement doses typically range from 200 to 1,000 µg/day of elemental chromium. Clinical evidence — spanning meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and randomized controlled trials — demonstrates modest but meaningful improvements in fasting blood glucose, HbA1c, and lipid parameters in insulin-resistant individuals, patients with type 2 diabetes, and women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Chromium picolinate is the most extensively studied chelated chromium form and is regulated in the United States as a dietary supplement ingredient under DSHEA (1994). It is widely available from brands certified by USP, NSF International, and ConsumerLab.

Mangan-Bisglycinat

Manganese(II) bisglycinate

Manganese Bisglycinate is a chelated trace mineral supplement in which one divalent manganese ion (Mn²⁺) is coordinated by two glycine amino acid ligands, forming a stable five-membered ring complex with the molecular formula MnC₄H₈N₂O₄ and a molar mass of 203.01 g/mol. Classified under DSHEA as a permitted dietary supplement ingredient in the United States, it is synthesized industrially by reacting manganese(II) salts with glycine under controlled pH conditions. The chelated architecture protects manganese from forming insoluble complexes with dietary inhibitors such as phytates and competing minerals, offering meaningfully improved gastrointestinal tolerability over inorganic forms like manganese oxide. Manganese is an essential trace element required as a metalloenzyme cofactor for mitochondrial superoxide dismutase (MnSOD/SOD2), arginase, pyruvate carboxylase, and multiple glycosyltransferases critical for proteoglycan biosynthesis. The NIH Office of Dietary Supplements sets the Adequate Intake (AI) at 2.3 mg/day for adult men and 1.8 mg/day for adult women, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 11 mg/day. Supplemental doses of 1–3 mg/day of elemental manganese as the bisglycinate chelate are standard practice. This guide synthesizes current biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical evidence, safety data, drug interactions, and US market guidance for health professionals and informed consumers.

Molybdän-Glycinat

Molybdenum bisglycinate chelate

Molybdenum Glycinate is a chelated trace mineral supplement in which elemental molybdenum is bound to glycine amino acid ligands, forming a coordination complex designed to optimize gastrointestinal tolerability and delivery of bioavailable molybdenum. As an essential trace element, molybdenum serves as the catalytic core of the molybdenum cofactor (Moco) — a conserved prosthetic group required for the activity of at least three critical human enzymes: sulfite oxidase, xanthine oxidase, and aldehyde oxidase. These molybdoenzymes govern sulfur amino acid catabolism, purine metabolism, and xenobiotic oxidation, respectively. The adult Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for molybdenum is 45 µg/day, with a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 2,000 µg/day established by the Institute of Medicine (2001). Molybdenum Glycinate supplements typically provide 50–250 µg elemental molybdenum per serving. While the glycinate chelate form is marketed for improved bioavailability and reduced GI irritation compared to inorganic molybdate salts, robust head-to-head human pharmacokinetic trials remain limited. This guide compiles the best available biochemical, nutritional, regulatory, and clinical evidence to help US consumers and healthcare professionals make evidence-informed decisions about molybdenum glycinate supplementation.

Kaliumiodid

Potassium iodide (KI)

Iodine, delivered as potassium iodide (KI, CAS 7681-11-0), is an essential inorganic mineral and pharmaceutical agent with a dual identity: a critical dietary micronutrient required for thyroid hormone synthesis, and the world's standard emergency thyroprotective drug against radioactive iodine exposure. The adult Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for iodine is 150 micrograms per day, rising to 220–250 µg/day during pregnancy and lactation. In radiological emergencies, a single 130 mg KI tablet can block up to 98% of thyroidal radioactive iodine uptake when administered within two hours of exposure. First isolated as a salt following Bernard Courtois's 1811 discovery of elemental iodine, KI has been used medicinally for over 200 years — from treating 19th-century goiters to protecting populations after Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011). Its mechanism centers on saturating the sodium–iodide symporter (NIS) in thyroid follicular cells, thereby competitively blocking uptake of radioactive iodine isotopes and acutely suppressing thyroid hormone release via the Wolff–Chaikoff and Plummer effects. This encyclopedia-level guide covers KI's chemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, dosing by population, safety, drug interactions, and US market guidance.

Bor-Glycinat

Boron glycinate complex

Boron Glycinate is a chelated trace mineral supplement formed by complexing boron — a metalloid essential for plant life and increasingly recognized in human mineral metabolism — with the amino acid glycine to create a biocompatible coordination complex. Unlike inorganic boric acid or simple borate salts, boron glycinate is engineered for improved gastrointestinal tolerability and is marketed across the US dietary supplement market for bone health, hormonal support, anti-inflammatory effects, and cognitive function. The Institute of Medicine has established a Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL) of 20 mg elemental boron per day for adults, while typical supplemental doses range from 1–6 mg/day. Boron exerts its biological effects not through classical receptor binding but through reversible covalent interactions with cis-diol structures on biomolecules, modulating enzymes involved in vitamin D activation, steroid hormone metabolism, and inflammatory signaling. While the elemental boron in glycinate form is assumed to be highly absorbed (>80%), direct head-to-head bioavailability data comparing glycinate to inorganic forms remain limited. This evidence-based guide covers the full pharmacological profile — chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, drug interactions, contraindications, and US market guidance — to help clinicians and educated consumers make informed decisions.

Siliziumdioxid

Silicon dioxide (SiO₂)

Silica — chemically known as silicon dioxide (SiO₂, CAS 7631-86-9) — is a naturally occurring mineral compound and the dietary source of silicon, the second most abundant element in Earth's crust. While bulk crystalline silica is ubiquitous in geology, the nutritionally relevant form is soluble monomeric orthosilicic acid (H₄SiO₄), the species absorbed in the human small intestine and incorporated into collagen-rich connective tissues, bone, skin, hair, and nails. Silicon is not yet classified as an officially essential nutrient by the FDA or NIH/ODS, yet decades of observational and interventional research consistently link adequate dietary silicon intake to superior bone mineral density, improved skin elasticity, stronger hair and nails, and healthier joint cartilage. Clinically studied supplement forms include choline-stabilized orthosilicic acid (ch-OSA) and monomethylsilanetriol (MMST), both of which deliver bioavailable silicon far more effectively than inert bulk silica powders used as excipients. Standard supplemental doses range from 5 to 30 mg elemental silicon per day. Oral supplementation is generally well tolerated; the pulmonary toxicity associated with inhaled crystalline silica is entirely unrelated to oral dietary use. This comprehensive guide covers identification, biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical evidence, dosage, drug interactions, safety, and US market guidance.

Strontium-Citrat

Strontium citrate

Strontium citrate is an ionic mineral salt — chemical formula Sr₃(C₆H₅O₇)₂, molar mass ~640.9 g/mol — combining the alkaline earth metal strontium (Sr²⁺) with citric acid anions, widely marketed in the US as an over-the-counter dietary supplement for bone health. Unlike prescription strontium ranelate (a distinct pharmaceutical compound), strontium citrate is regulated under DSHEA and available without a prescription. Its primary mechanism involves a dual action: physicochemical incorporation of Sr²⁺ into hydroxyapatite bone mineral, and biological modulation of osteoblast (bone-forming) and osteoclast (bone-resorbing) cell activity via calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) signaling and the RANKL/OPG pathway. Fractional oral absorption ranges approximately 15–30%, superior to strontium carbonate due to improved aqueous solubility. Clinically relevant interactions include competition with calcium for intestinal absorption — separation by 2–3 hours is essential — and chelation interactions with tetracycline and fluoroquinolone antibiotics. Common supplemental doses range from 340–680 mg elemental strontium daily. Key safety caveats include avoidance in severe renal impairment and awareness that DXA-measured bone mineral density increases partly reflect strontium's higher atomic number rather than solely new bone formation. This guide synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence, dosing, and US market guidance.