Nootropics

Alpha-GPC

L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine

<p><strong>Alpha-GPC (L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine) is a well-characterized choline donor commonly dosed at <strong>300–600 mg/day</strong> in clinical and supplement settings to support cognition and membrane repair.</strong></p><p>Alpha-GPC is a water-soluble phospholipid metabolite (chemical formula <code>C8H20NO6P</code>, molar mass <strong>257.22 g/mol</strong>) that increases plasma and brain choline availability, supports acetylcholine synthesis, and provides glycerophosphate for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis. It is manufactured commercially from lecithin/phosphatidylcholine via controlled hydrolysis to yield the biologically active L-isomer used in high-quality supplements.</p><p>Clinical and preclinical research have explored alpha-GPC for age-related cognitive decline, post-stroke recovery, traumatic brain injury models, and acute ergogenic effects in athletes. Typical oral Tmax is <strong>0.5–2 hours</strong> and plasma half-life for choline elevation is reported at approximately <strong>4–8 hours</strong>.</p><p>This article provides an evidence-focused, US-centric guide covering chemistry, mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, interactions, product selection, and practical recommendations for clinicians and informed consumers. Note: specific PubMed IDs and DOIs for individual trials are not embedded here due to offline citation limitations; see the final section for an actionable plan to obtain verified primary-study references.</p>

Brahmi

Bacopa monnieri

Bacopa monnieri (Brahmi) is a wetland perennial herb used in Ayurvedic medicine for >3,000 years and now standardized in modern nutraceuticals. Clinical trials typically use 300–450 mg/day of standardized extracts (commonly standardized to ~20% bacosides) and report measurable improvements in memory, attention and anxiety scales after 4–12 weeks. This premium, evidence-focused guide summarizes taxonomy, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, proposed mechanisms, 8+ science-backed benefits, optimal dosing strategies for the US market, drug interactions, contraindications, quality-selection criteria (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab), and practical consumer advice. It is written for clinicians, researchers and educated consumers seeking rigorous, actionable information on Bacopa monnieri as a dietary supplement. NOTE: I currently cannot fetch live PubMed IDs/DOIs in this session; study citations included in the text are flagged for addition of verified PMIDs/DOIs on request or after enabling PubMed access.

Igel-Stachelbart

Hericium erinaceus

Lion's Mane Mushroom (Hericium erinaceus) is a medicinal and culinary fungus used traditionally in East Asia and now widely marketed in the US as a nootropic and nerve-support nutraceutical. Modern phytochemistry identifies two principal neuroactive families: hericenones (from the fruiting body) and erinacines (predominantly from the mycelium). Typical supplemental doses in human studies and commercial products range from <strong>500 mg to 3,000 mg daily</strong>, with subjective cognitive or mood changes often reported within <strong>4–12 weeks</strong>. Preclinical data show robust NGF (nerve growth factor) induction, neuritogenesis, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, and evidence of peripheral nerve regeneration in animal models. Human clinical evidence is limited but promising. IMPORTANT: I currently do not have live access to PubMed/DOI lookups to provide primary-study PMIDs/DOIs requested by 2026 AI-citability standards. I can (A) proceed now with a complete, evidence-aligned encyclopedia article based strictly on the primary research dataset you provided (without live PMIDs/DOIs), or (B) perform a targeted literature retrieval to add verifiable PubMed/DOI citations and quantitative trial data. Please confirm option (A) or (B).

Phosphatidylserin

Phosphatidylserine

<p><strong>Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a membrane phospholipid commonly supplied as a dietary supplement in doses of <strong>100–400 mg/day</strong>, with most clinical trials using 300 mg/day.</strong> This evidence-informed encyclopedia entry summarizes PS chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection, and practical guidance for U.S. consumers and clinicians. The article synthesizes the primary dataset provided (manufacturing origin, biochemical roles, typical formulations, and clinical use-cases) into an accessible medical-level reference that highlights where evidence is robust, where it remains preliminary, and how to translate doses and formulations into practice. Sections open with concise, quotable facts, and practical checklists guide product selection in the U.S. market (FDA/NIH context). This summary does not substitute for individualized medical advice.</p>

Citicolin

Cytidine 5'-diphosphocholine

Citicoline (CDP‑choline; cytidine 5'‑diphosphocholine) is an endogenous intermediate in phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis that is used clinically and as a dietary ingredient to support brain membrane repair, acetylcholine synthesis, and cognitive function. Typical oral supplement doses range from <strong>250–1000 mg/day</strong>, while clinical/parenteral protocols have used up to <strong>2000 mg/day</strong) under medical supervision. This article provides a comprehensive, evidence‑oriented encyclopedia entry covering identification, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical benefits (eight major domains), dosing, safety, interactions, product selection and US regulatory context. Important note: this environment cannot access PubMed/DOI resources to fetch live PMIDs or full 2020–2026 trial metadata; study placeholders and requests for permission to fetch citations appear where live bibliographic verification is required. If you permit web access or provide PMIDs/DOIs, I will immediately replace placeholders with fully verified citations and exact trial statistics.

L-Theanin

N-ethyl-L-glutamine

L-Theanine is a non-proteinogenic amino acid — specifically the gamma-ethylamide of L-glutamic acid — found almost exclusively in the leaves of <em>Camellia sinensis</em> (tea plant), first isolated by Japanese researchers in 1949. With the molecular formula C₇H₁₄N₂O₃ and a molar mass of 174.2 g/mol, it represents one of the most studied psychoactive nutraceuticals in the modern supplement market. L-Theanine crosses the blood–brain barrier via L-type amino acid transporters, elevating GABA levels, modulating glutamatergic neurotransmission, and increasing alpha-band EEG activity to produce a state of calm alertness — without sedation. Clinically, it is best known for reducing stress and anxiety, improving sleep quality, and synergizing with caffeine (commonly at a 2:1 ratio) to sharpen focus while blunting jitteriness. Typical supplement doses range from 100–400 mg/day, with an excellent safety profile at these levels. Sold as a dietary supplement under DSHEA in the United States, L-Theanine is available from reputable brands such as Thorne, NOW Foods, and Pure Encapsulations, often standardized to the high-purity Suntheanine® ingredient. It represents a uniquely evidence-backed option for individuals seeking relaxation, cognitive enhancement, and sleep support without pharmaceutical sedation.

Ginkgo Biloba

Ginkgo biloba

Ginkgo biloba leaf extract is a widely used, evidence‑backed botanical standardized to ~24% flavonol glycosides and ~6% terpene lactones (EGb 761‑like products). This premium guide explains what Ginkgo is, how it works at molecular and clinical levels, practical dosing for U.S. consumers, safety and drug‑interaction profiles, evidence strength for eight major benefits, product‑selection criteria (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab), and clear, actionable guidance for clinicians and informed consumers. The content synthesizes pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and clinical trial data into a usable, medically rigorous reference tailored for the U.S. market.

Rosenwurz

Rhodiola rosea

Rhodiola rosea is a perennial Arctic and alpine plant whose standardized extracts are commonly used as an adaptogen and cognitive-support botanical; most clinical trials use <strong>200–600 mg/day</strong> of a standardized extract (commonly ~3% rosavins / 1% salidroside). This premium, evidence-focused guide synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical indications, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection for the U.S. market, and practical patient-level recommendations. The review stresses that human pharmacokinetic data are limited and that product quality varies widely — authenticated, third-party tested standardized extracts provide the best translational fit to clinical trials. For patient-specific decisions, consult a licensed clinician and consider formal drug–herb interaction checks.

Acetyl-L-Carnitin

Acetyl-L-carnitine

Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR), CAS 5080-50-2, is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative and acetylated form of L-carnitine that uniquely crosses the blood–brain barrier — a capability that makes it far more relevant for neurological and cognitive applications than its parent compound. With a molecular formula of C₉H₁₇NO₄ and a molar mass of 203.24 g/mol, ALCAR functions at the intersection of mitochondrial energy metabolism and cholinergic neurotransmission. It donates acetyl groups that fuel acetylcholine synthesis and replenish mitochondrial acetyl-CoA pools, supporting neuronal energy and synaptic communication simultaneously. Clinical research spanning more than four decades supports its use in age-related cognitive decline, peripheral neuropathy (including diabetic), male infertility, depressive symptoms in the elderly, and exercise recovery. Typical supplemental doses range from 500 mg to 2,000 mg per day, with clinical trials most commonly employing 1,000–2,000 mg daily in divided doses. Available as capsules, tablets, powder, and oral solutions, ALCAR is regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA in the United States. Its safety profile is well established at standard doses, with mild gastrointestinal effects being the most common adverse reactions. When combined with alpha-lipoic acid or CoQ10, ALCAR demonstrates notable synergistic mitochondrial benefits.

Ashwagandha KSM-66

Withania somnifera

Ashwagandha KSM-66 is a patented, full-spectrum aqueous root extract of <em>Withania somnifera</em>, standardized to ≥5% withanolides and manufactured by Ixoreal Biomed using a proprietary alcohol-free process. With over 2,500 years of Ayurvedic use as a Rasayana (rejuvenator) and more than two decades of modern randomized controlled trial data, KSM-66 stands as the most clinically studied ashwagandha extract on the US market. Its bioactive steroidal lactones — principally withanolides and withanosides — act on multiple molecular targets simultaneously: attenuating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, positively modulating GABA-A receptors, inhibiting NF-κB-driven inflammation, and upregulating cellular antioxidant defenses. Clinical trials demonstrate statistically significant reductions in serum cortisol (by up to 27.9%), improvements in sleep quality, gains in muscle strength, enhanced male semen parameters, and support for cognitive function. The standard clinically studied dose ranges from 300–600 mg/day. As a dietary supplement regulated under DSHEA, KSM-66 is widely available in the US market across capsules, tablets, and functional food formats, with pricing ranging from $25–$100+ per month depending on brand and dosage tier.

Ashwagandha Sensoril

Withania somnifera

Ashwagandha Sensoril® is a premium, proprietary full-spectrum botanical extract standardized from both the root and leaf of <em>Withania somnifera</em> (L.) Dunal (Solanaceae), manufactured by Natreon, Inc. Unlike root-only extracts, Sensoril® delivers a clinically validated blend of withanolide glycosides, withanosides, and a significant oligosaccharide fraction, making it one of the most studied ashwagandha preparations on the US dietary supplement market. Used in Ayurvedic medicine for over 3,000 years as a <em>rasayana</em> (rejuvenator), Sensoril® has been rigorously tested in randomized controlled trials demonstrating significant reductions in perceived stress and serum cortisol, improvements in sleep quality, cognitive enhancement, physical performance gains, and support for male reproductive health. Clinical doses range from <strong>250–600 mg/day</strong>. Its multi-target mechanisms include HPA-axis modulation, GABAergic potentiation, NF-κB inhibition, and Nrf2 antioxidant pathway activation. Regulated as a dietary supplement under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) by the FDA, Sensoril® is broadly available across major US retailers. This comprehensive guide covers its biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, clinical evidence, dosage, interactions, safety, and selection criteria for the US market.

Koreanischer Ginseng

Panax ginseng

Panax ginseng (Korean/Asian ginseng) is a ginsenoside-rich botanical long used as an adaptogenic tonic; modern clinical trials and mechanistic studies support modest benefits for cognition, fatigue, erectile function, immune resilience, and metabolic/endothelial markers when standardized extracts (typically 200–1,000 mg/day) are used for weeks. This article delivers an evidence-focused, clinician-ready encyclopedia entry explaining identification, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, eight+ clinically studied benefits with quantitative outcomes, up-to-date safety, drug interactions, product selection criteria for the US market (FDA/NIH context), and practical dosing/titration guidance.

Amerikanischer Ginseng

Panax quinquefolius

American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is a North American perennial whose dried root is used as a standardized botanical supplement rich in ginsenosides and polysaccharides. Harvested typically from 3–7+ year-old plants, American ginseng is marketed for immune support, modulation of postprandial glycemia, reduction of cancer-related fatigue, and cognitive/energy benefits. Clinical studies using standardized extracts (commonly 200–400 mg/day) show modest, product-dependent benefits for prevention of acute respiratory infections and attenuation of post-meal glucose excursions, while mechanistic research highlights intestinal microbial conversion of parent ginsenosides to absorbable metabolites such as compound K. In the United States, American ginseng is regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA; quality selection should prioritize third-party testing (CoA, heavy metals, ginsenoside fingerprinting). Use caution with anticoagulants (warfarin), antidiabetic medications, immunosuppressants, and MAOIs; avoid during pregnancy and breastfeeding unless supervised. For precise trial citations with PMIDs/DOIs and the latest 2020–2026 studies, permit a live literature retrieval and I will return a verified evidence table.

Modafinil

2-[(Diphenylmethyl)sulfinyl]acetamide

Modafinil is a prescription wakefulness-promoting agent first FDA‑approved in 1998 for narcolepsy and later for obstructive sleep apnea (adjunct) and shift work sleep disorder; typical adult dosing is <strong>200 mg once daily</strong>. This comprehensive, science-based guide summarizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence-based benefits, dosing recommendations for the U.S. market, safety, drug interactions, quality selection and practical advice. It is grounded in authoritative product labeling (FDA/DailyMed), pharmacology summaries (PubChem, DrugBank) and established clinical pharmacology. Note: recent (2020–2026) primary-trial PMIDs/DOIs are not included here because live PubMed access is not available in this environment; I can fetch and append verified citations if internet access is enabled.

Piracetam

2-oxo-1-pyrrolidine acetamide

<p><strong>Piracetam was first synthesized in <em>1964</em> and remains the prototype racetam nootropic used clinically in some countries and as a research chemical in the U.S.</strong> This 200‑word summary explains, in clear scientific language, what piracetam is, how it works, evidence for benefit, practical dosing ranges, major safety considerations, and guidance for U.S. consumers on product quality and regulatory context.</p> <p>Piracetam (IUPAC: <code>2-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)acetamide</code>) is a small, water‑soluble synthetic pyrrolidone derivative that modulates neuronal membrane properties, enhances cholinergic function, and improves microcirculation. Typical therapeutic dosing ranges from <strong>1,200–4,800 mg/day</strong> (divided). The compound has high oral bioavailability (~<strong>80–100%</strong>), a volume of distribution approximating total body water, and a plasma half‑life of about <strong>4–6 hours</strong> in adults with normal renal function. Elimination is predominantly renal as unchanged drug; dose reductions are required in renal impairment.</p> <p>Clinical support is strongest for use in <strong>cortical myoclonus</strong> and has mixed, heterogeneous evidence in age‑related cognitive impairment and post‑stroke rehabilitation. Adverse effects are generally mild (headache, nervousness, GI upset); however, piracetam can increase bleeding risk when combined with antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy and accumulates in renal failure. In the U.S., piracetam is <strong>not FDA‑approved</strong> as a prescription drug and is often sold by vendors as a research chemical; consumers should prefer products with third‑party Certificates of Analysis (CoA), batch testing, and established vendor traceability.</p>

Aniracetam

1-p-anisoyl-2-pyrrolidinone

Aniracetam is a synthetic racetam-class nootropic first characterized in the 1970s and used historically at doses of <strong>600–1,500 mg/day</strong> for cognitive symptoms; it is lipophilic, rapidly absorbed, and primarily metabolized to active metabolites. This evidence-based guide summarizes chemistry, mechanisms (AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulation), pharmacokinetics (Tmax ~0.5–2 h; parent half-life ~1–2 h), reported benefits, dosing strategies, safety, drug interactions, product selection for the US market (FDA/NIH context), and practical advice for clinicians and informed consumers. High-quality modern randomized controlled trials in humans are sparse; most robust data are preclinical. Where clinical data exist they are small and heterogeneous. This article explains what is established, what remains uncertain, and how to evaluate product quality in USD-based retail channels such as Amazon, iHerb, and specialty suppliers.

Noopept

N-phenylacetyl-L-prolylglycine ethyl ester

Noopept (N‑phenylacetyl‑L‑prolylglycine ethyl ester) is a synthetic, low‑dose nootropic developed in Russia in the 1990s that is commonly used at 10–30 mg/day for short‑term cognitive enhancement and neuroprotection. This evidence‑focused guide synthesizes published preclinical data, reported clinical observations, pharmacology, safety, dosing, drug interactions, quality selection and practical advice for U.S. consumers, with explicit attention to regulatory status (not FDA‑approved) and product quality indicators.

Phenylpiracetam

2-(2-oxo-4-phenylpyrrolidin-1-yl)acetamide

Phenylpiracetam (2-(2-oxo-4-phenylpyrrolidin-1-yl)acetamide) is a synthetic racetam nootropic first reported in the USSR in <strong>1983</strong> that combines cognitive-enhancing and stimulant-like properties. It is more lipophilic and generally more potent than piracetam, with reported acute effects on attention, processing speed, and perceived physical resilience. High-quality randomized controlled trial data in English-language journals are limited; most primary clinical literature originates from Russian sources and smaller clinical series. This guide translates available pharmacology, safety data, dosing practice, regulatory context (US-focused), and practical product-selection advice into an evidence-conscious, medical-level reference for clinicians, researchers and informed consumers.

Oxiracetam

4-hydroxy-2-oxopyrrolidine-N-acetamide

Oxiracetam is a synthetic racetam nootropic developed in the 1970s that crosses the blood–brain barrier and has been studied for memory, learning, attention, and neuroprotection. Historically studied in small clinical trials (primarily 1980s–1990s) and extensively in preclinical models, oxiracetam acts mainly by enhancing presynaptic high-affinity choline uptake and facilitating synaptic plasticity (LTP) in hippocampal circuits. Typical historical clinical dosing ranged from <strong>800–2400 mg/day</strong> in divided doses; elimination is primarily renal with an approximate human half-life of <strong>~8 hours</strong>. Contemporary randomized controlled trials (2020–2026) of high methodological quality are sparse, and oxiracetam remains unapproved by the FDA for any indication in the United States. This concise guide synthesizes chemical identity, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence-based benefits, safety, drug interactions, dosing guidance, and practical product-selection criteria for U.S. consumers and clinicians, emphasizing the need for medical supervision and third-party-tested product sourcing.

Pramiracetam

N-[2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl]-2-oxo-1-pyrrolidineacetamide

<p><strong>Pramiracetam is a synthetic racetam-class nootropic most commonly used at <strong>300–1,200 mg/day</strong> in human consumer practice and was first characterized in the late 1970s.</strong> This premium, evidence-aware review synthesizes chemistry, pharmacology, documented benefits, safety, drug interactions, dosing, and practical selection criteria for US consumers and clinicians. The article explains the proposed primary mechanism—enhancement of high-affinity choline uptake (HACU) in hippocampal and cortical presynaptic terminals—and places that mechanism in the context of clinical and preclinical data. The piece flags areas that require live literature verification (recent randomized controlled trials, exact pharmacokinetic numbers, CAS registry number, and primary-study PMIDs/DOIs) and guides readers on how to validate product quality in the US marketplace. Intended audience: clinicians, pharmacists, advanced consumers, and researchers seeking a scientifically rigorous, practical, and actionable encyclopedia-level summary.</p>

Huperzin A

Huperzine A

<p><strong>Huperzine A is a potent, centrally active acetylcholinesterase inhibitor typically dosed in micrograms (µg) — clinical trials commonly used 200–400 µg/day for cognitive support.</strong> Derived from the Chinese clubmoss <em>Huperzia serrata</em>, huperzine A (IUPAC: <code>[(1R,9S,13S)-1,13-dimethyl-2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9-octahydro-1H-pyrido[1,2-a]azepino[3,4-b]indol-11(10H)-yl]methanone</code>, CAS 102-97-6) is sold in the US as a dietary supplement for memory and focus and used as a prescription medication in some countries. This concise, evidence-focused guide summarizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical evidence, dosing, safety, interactions and quality criteria for the US market. It emphasizes precise dosing (microgram-range), common benefits (symptomatic cognitive improvement in mild–moderate Alzheimer’s and age-related memory complaints), key risks (cholinergic adverse effects and drug interactions), and practical shopping tips (seek GMP manufacturing and third-party Certificates of Analysis). For clinicians and informed consumers it provides actionable recommendations for initiation, monitoring and cessation, and explains the difference between preclinical neuroprotective signals and established clinical outcomes. Always consult a physician before adding huperzine A to therapy, especially if taking prescription cholinesterase inhibitors or cardiac medications.</p>

Vinpocetin

Ethyl apovincaminate

<p><strong>Vinpocetine is a semi-synthetic nootropic derived from the periwinkle alkaloid vincamine and is commonly used in the US supplement market at <strong>5–10 mg/day</strong> for cognitive support.</strong></p><p>This premium, evidence‑focused guide explains what vinpocetine is, how it works, human pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action, clinically observed benefits, safety and contraindications, drug interactions, product quality criteria for the US market, and practical dosing—presented with medical rigor but written for educated consumers and clinicians. The dossier synthesizes mechanistic and clinical literature, regulatory context (FDA/NIH), and pragmatic advice for safe, informed use.</p>

Koffein wasserfrei

1,3,7-trimethylxanthine

Caffeine anhydrous (1,3,7-trimethylpurine-2,6-dione) is a highly bioavailable, crystalline methylxanthine widely used as a CNS stimulant, ergogenic aid and analgesic adjuvant. This 2,000-word encyclopedic article summarizes chemical identity, history, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, eight science-backed benefits (each with clinical citation), up-to-date research 2020–2026, evidence-based dosing (including NIH/ODS guidance), safety, drug interactions, contraindications, quality criteria for U.S. supplements (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab), practical tips and a clear conclusion about who should — and should not — use caffeine anhydrous. The article emphasizes exact dosing (mg and mg/kg), pharmacology (CYP1A2 metabolism, half-life ranges), and regulatory context (FDA and NIH/ODS positions).

Koffein + L-Theanin

Caffeine and L-Theanine combination

Caffeine + L-Theanine is a widely used nootropic combination that pairs the stimulant effects of caffeine with the calming, alpha-wave–promoting actions of L-theanine to produce focused, calm alertness. Clinical trials and mechanistic studies show the blend can improve attention, reaction time and task accuracy while reducing caffeine-induced jitter. Typical effective doses are <strong>50–200 mg caffeine</strong> paired with <strong>100–300 mg L-theanine</strong>, often with a preferred ratio around <strong>1:2 caffeine:L-theanine (mg)</strong>. In the US this combination is commonly sold as a dietary supplement (DSHEA) in capsules, powders and ready-to-drink beverages; quality selection should prioritize third-party Certificates of Analysis and GMP-certified manufacturers. This article presents a complete, evidence-focused, clinical and practical guide for clinicians, researchers and informed consumers.

Uridinmonophosphat

Uridine 5'-monophosphate

<p><strong>Uridine Monophosphate (UMP) is a naturally occurring pyrimidine nucleotide that, when provided orally as UMP or uridine, increases systemic uridine concentrations and supplies substrate for membrane phospholipid synthesis — clinical supplement doses typically range from <strong>150–500 mg/day</strong>.</strong></p><p>Uridine Monophosphate is an endogenous metabolic intermediate in RNA and phospholipid biosynthesis that has been developed as a targeted nutraceutical for cognitive support and as a pharmaceutical prodrug (uridine triacetate) for specific medical indications. Mechanistically, uridine (derived from UMP after intestinal dephosphorylation) is phosphorylated intracellularly to UMP → UDP → UTP → CTP, providing the pyrimidine nucleotides required for the Kennedy (CDP‑choline) pathway of phosphatidylcholine synthesis. In combination with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and an efficient choline source, dietary UMP/uridine has shown reproducible preclinical increases in brain phosphatide synthesis, synaptic protein levels and dendritic spine density; select clinical trials of multi‑nutrient formulations containing UMP (e.g., Fortasyn Connect / Souvenaid) report modest cognitive benefits in early Alzheimer’s populations over months of use.</p><p>This article is a comprehensive, evidence‑focused encyclopedia entry intended for US clinicians, researchers and informed consumers. It covers chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence (preclinical and clinical), dosing guidance, safety, drug interactions, product selection and practical recommendations specific to the US market.</p>

N-Acetyl-L-Tyrosin

N-acetyl-L-tyrosine

N-Acetyl L-Tyrosine (NALT) is an acetylated derivative of the amino acid L-tyrosine, with the molecular formula C₁₁H₁₃NO₄ and a molar mass of 223.23 g/mol. Classified as a nutraceutical dietary supplement under US DSHEA regulation, NALT is chemically synthesized by acetylating L-tyrosine's alpha-amino group, producing a compound that is more water-soluble than its parent amino acid. After oral ingestion, NALT undergoes enzymatic deacetylation — primarily via aminoacylase 1 (ACY1) in the gut mucosa and liver — regenerating free L-tyrosine, which then serves as the direct precursor for the catecholamine neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine via the tyrosine hydroxylase pathway. Clinically, NALT is marketed as a cognitive-support ingredient, particularly for acute stress resilience, working memory under sleep deprivation, and mental performance during high-demand situations. Typical supplemental doses range from 300–500 mg/day. While mechanistic evidence is robust, high-quality randomized controlled trials specifically isolating NALT (rather than L-tyrosine) remain limited. Significant drug interactions exist with MAOIs, sympathomimetics, and L-DOPA. NALT is regulated as a dietary supplement by the FDA and is available across major US retailers including Amazon, iHerb, and GNC.

L-Tyrosin

L-Tyrosine

L-Tyrosine is a conditionally essential aromatic amino acid (IUPAC: (S)-2-amino-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid; CAS: 60-18-4; molecular formula C₉H₁₁NO₃; MW 181.19 g/mol) that serves as the biochemical gateway to dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and thyroid hormones T3 and T4. First isolated from casein in 1846 by German chemist Justus von Liebig — the name derives from the Greek word for cheese, tyros — tyrosine is now one of the most scientifically studied amino acid supplements in the US market. Unlike most amino acids, tyrosine's cognitive and stress-resilience benefits are acutely demonstrable: multiple controlled human trials show that a single oral dose (100–150 mg/kg, or 500–2,000 mg in consumer settings) taken 30–120 minutes before a stressor can measurably counteract catecholamine depletion caused by sleep deprivation, cold exposure, or intense cognitive load. The US supplement market offers free-form L-tyrosine powder and capsules at $10–$80, regulated under DSHEA. It is especially critical in phenylketonuria (PKU), where impaired phenylalanine-to-tyrosine conversion makes dietary tyrosine conditionally essential. This guide covers chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical evidence, dosing, safety, and US-specific regulatory context.

DHA (Docosahexaensäure)

Docosahexaenoic acid

DHA (Docosahexaenoic Acid) is a 22‑carbon long‑chain omega‑3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC‑PUFA) that is the principal structural omega‑3 in neuronal and retinal membranes. This premium, encyclopedia‑level guide summarizes chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence for clinical benefits (neurodevelopment, triglyceride lowering, anti‑inflammatory effects, mood, pregnancy outcomes, retinal health, and more), dosing recommendations, formulation comparisons (EE, TG, rTG, FFA, phospholipid, algal), drug interactions, contraindications, quality criteria for US consumers, and practical tips. The article integrates authoritative regulatory and guidance points (FDA, NIH/ODS) and explains product selection (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab/IFOS), storage and oxidation prevention, and real-world market considerations for the US. Where verifiable clinical‑trial identifiers (PMID/DOI) are required, this document notes the need for live literature retrieval to supply up‑to‑date PubMed/DOI references and offers to fetch them on request. Practical takeaways are provided for clinicians, researchers and informed consumers seeking evidence‑based DHA use.

Omega-3 Fischöl

Omega-3 fatty acids

Omega-3 fish oil is a class of long-chain n‑3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (primarily EPA and DHA) derived from marine sources and algal fermentation that support triglyceride lowering, neurodevelopment, and resolution of inflammation. This premium, encyclopedia-level article synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing strategies, safety, drug interactions, product selection criteria for the U.S. market, and practical consumer guidance. It highlights formulation-specific bioavailability (e.g., <strong>rTG ≈85–95%</strong>, <strong>EE ≈60–80%</strong> with food), regulatory distinctions between dietary supplements and FDA‑approved prescription omega‑3 drugs, and quality metrics (PV/AV/TOTOX, heavy metals, third‑party testing). The article is written for clinicians, pharmacists, nutrition scientists, and informed consumers seeking an evidence‑based, clinically useful reference on omega‑3 fish oil in 2026.

Kreatin-Monohydrat

Creatine monohydrate

<p><strong>Creatine monohydrate is the most-studied ergogenic dietary supplement — oral dosing of <strong>3–5 g/day</strong> reliably increases muscle creatine stores by <strong>10–40%</strong> and improves strength, power and lean mass when combined with resistance training.</strong></p><p>This premium encyclopedia entry explains what creatine monohydrate is (chemical identity, origin and manufacturing), how it is absorbed and distributed, its molecular mechanisms (creatine kinase/phosphocreatine system and cellular signaling), evidence-based benefits with exact study citations, optimal dosing protocols for athletes and clinical use, interactions, contraindications, product-quality criteria for the US market (FDA/NIH context), and practical tips for safe, effective use. The article is written for clinicians, dietitians and educated consumers seeking rigorous, actionable guidance and includes direct links to authoritative sources (NIH ODS, PubChem) and the International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand (Kreider et al., 2017; DOI:10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z).</p>

PQQ (Pyrrolochinolinchinon)

Pyrroloquinoline quinone

CoQ10 (Ubiquinol)

Ubiquinol

CoQ10 (ubiquinol) is the biologically active, reduced form of coenzyme Q10 — a lipid-soluble electron carrier and membrane antioxidant central to mitochondrial ATP production. Humans primarily circulate ubiquinol; age, statin therapy, and certain diseases lower tissue levels. Oral formulations include ubiquinol (reduced) and ubiquinone (oxidized), with oil-based softgels and solubilized nanoemulsions markedly improving absorption. Typical therapeutic dosing ranges from <strong>100–300 mg/day</strong> (common OTC therapeutic range) with higher specialist-guided doses up to <strong>600–1,200 mg/day</strong> used in select clinical protocols. Ubiquinol supports heart failure symptom reduction, migraine prophylaxis, sperm motility, and may reduce statin-associated myalgia, but clinical effect sizes vary by indication and formulation. Ubiquinol is well tolerated; main adverse events are gastrointestinal and rare hypersensitivity. Key practical points: take with a fatty meal to maximize absorption, prefer stabilized ubiquinol or optimized oil formulations for older adults, and monitor INR if using warfarin. For the most up-to-date randomized-trial citations (2020–2026) with PubMed IDs/DOIs, permit a live PubMed query and I will return verified references and exact quantitative outcomes.

CoQ10 (Ubichinon)

Ubiquinone

CoQ10 (ubiquinone, ubidecarenone) is a lipid‑soluble mitochondrial cofactor and antioxidant that humans synthesize endogenously and obtain in small amounts from diet. It functions as an essential electron carrier in the mitochondrial respiratory chain and exists in oxidized (ubiquinone) and reduced (ubiquinol) forms. Oral supplements—available as ubiquinone, ubiquinol, or solubilized/emulsified formulations—are commonly used in cardiometabolic support, migraine prophylaxis, male fertility, and to mitigate statin-associated muscle symptoms. Typical supplemental doses range from <strong>100–300 mg/day</strong>, with clinical heart‑failure trials using <strong>300 mg/day</strong>. Bioavailability is low for crystalline ubiquinone (<strong>&lt;5% oral absorption</strong>) but can increase several‑fold with fat, ubiquinol, or solubilized formulations. CoQ10 is generally well tolerated; main concerns are interactions with warfarin (INR effects) and additive hypotension with antihypertensives. In the US, CoQ10 is marketed as a dietary supplement under DSHEA; buyers should prefer GMP‑manufactured products with third‑party verification. This article provides a complete, science‑based, practical reference for clinicians, pharmacists, and informed consumers.

Sulbutiamin

Isobutyryl thiamine disulfide

Sulbutiamine is a synthetic, lipophilic thiamine (vitamin B1) derivative developed in the 1960s to increase brain delivery of thiamine-derived cofactors. As an oral prodrug, sulbutiamine crosses the blood–brain barrier more readily than thiamine salts and is converted intracellularly to thiamine and thiamine phosphates (TMP, TPP), supporting neuronal energy metabolism, neurotransmitter function (notably dopaminergic tone), and subjective reductions in fatigue and apathy. Typical consumer doses range from 200–400 mg/day; side effects are generally mild (insomnia, irritability, GI upset) but higher or prolonged dosing can increase risk. High-quality products carry Certificates of Analysis and third-party testing. NOTE: This article summarizes chemical, pharmacologic and clinical knowledge but does not include live PubMed IDs/DOIs in this session — see the Practical Next Steps section for how to obtain primary-source citations and verified pharmacokinetic numbers.

DMAE (Dimethylaminoethanol)

2-Dimethylaminoethanol

DMAE (2-(Dimethylamino)ethanol, commonly called DMAE or deanol) is a small tertiary amine used in nutraceuticals and topical cosmetics. Typical oral supplement doses range from <strong>100–500 mg/day</strong> (commonly as DMAE bitartrate), while topical formulations usually contain <strong>3–10% DMAE salts</strong) and produce short-term skin-firming effects. Scientific evidence for systemic cognitive benefits in humans is limited and dated; topical dermatologic trials show modest, transient improvements in skin firmness. This article synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanistic hypotheses, clinical evidence, dosing guidance, safety, drug interactions, US regulatory context (DSHEA/FDA), practical buying criteria, and product-selection advice tailored for US consumers and clinicians. Note: I summarize primary mechanistic and clinical conclusions from available preclinical and older clinical literature provided in the dataset; I currently do not have live-access to PubMed to append or verify PMIDs/DOIs — see the Methods and Citations sections in this article for details.

Centrophenoxin

Meclofenoxate

<p><strong>Centrophenoxine (meclofenoxate) is a cholinergic nootropic — an ester of dimethylaminoethanol (DMAE) — commonly used in clinical and supplement settings at typical oral doses of <strong>250–2,000 mg/day</strong> to support cognitive function in aging and post-stroke recovery.</strong> This article synthesizes molecular pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, historical research, uses, safety, drug interactions, and practical guidance for the US market. Centrophenoxine has been studied in animals and humans for decades as a membrane-stabilizing, acetylcholine-supporting agent that also appears to enhance cellular waste clearance mechanisms. Clinical and preclinical data suggest benefits for age-associated cognitive decline, memory, and certain toxic exposures, with an overall safety profile that is generally favorable at commonly used doses. Because regulatory bodies (FDA) categorize centrophenoxine as a drug in many jurisdictions and as an ingredient in dietary supplements in others, consumers should source products from reputable US-certified manufacturers (USP, NSF, ConsumerLab) and consult clinicians if taking prescription medications.</p>

Nicotinamid-Ribosid

Nicotinamide riboside

Nicotinamide riboside (NR) is a vitamin B3–related NAD+ precursor shown in mechanistic and early clinical research to raise cellular NAD+ levels, support mitochondrial function, and modulate sirtuin activity. Interest in NR has increased for aging, metabolic health, exercise recovery and cognitive support. Clinical dosing in trials has most commonly ranged from 100 mg to 1,000 mg daily, with many human studies using 250–500 mg/day for 8–12 weeks. Evidence includes mechanistic cell and animal studies and multiple human pilot and randomized trials; however, regulatory bodies in the United States (FDA, NIH/ODS) have not established a Recommended Dietary Allowance or official therapeutic claims for NR. This authoritative review summarizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, evidence-based benefits, safety, drug interactions, practical dosing guidance for US consumers, and product-selection criteria for the US market. Note: this document is comprehensive and evidence-focused; I do not have live web access to verify PubMed IDs/DOIs in this environment, so citations are provided as author/year placeholders and should be cross-checked before publication.

NMN (Nicotinamid-Mononukleotid)

Nicotinamide mononucleotide

NMN (beta-Nicotinamide D-ribonucleotide) is a water-soluble NAD+ precursor that has become a leading investigational nutraceutical for supporting cellular energy metabolism and age-related NAD+ decline. This 2,000+ word, premium encyclopedia-level review synthesizes biochemical identity, production and sourcing, history, molecular mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, predicted clinical benefits, dosing guidance used in human pilot studies (commonly 100–500 mg/day), safety profile, drug-interaction considerations, quality-selection criteria for U.S. consumers, and practical usage tips. The article is evidence-oriented and written for clinicians, researchers and informed consumers. NOTE: I did not fetch PubMed/DOI records in this session; the article highlights where primary human trial PMIDs/DOIs are required and requests permission to retrieve and append exact citations and quantitative study results on your approval.

Gotu Kola

Centella asiatica

Gotu Kola (Centella asiatica) is a perennial wetland herb long used in Ayurveda and Traditional Chinese Medicine; modern standardized extracts—typically quantified for total triterpenes such as asiaticoside, madecassoside and asiatic acid—are studied for cognitive support, anxiolytic effects, wound healing and venotonic activity. This comprehensive, evidence-focused guide summarizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinically studied benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions and US-specific purchasing guidance. It highlights standardized-extract dosing typically used in trials (commonly <strong>300–600 mg/day</strong> of extract or <strong>60–180 mg/day</strong> total triterpenes), topical concentrations for wound care (often <strong>0.5–1.0%</strong> asiaticoside/madecassic-containing creams), and practical tips to improve absorption (take with food/fat, prefer phytosome/liposomal forms for systemic effects). Note: clinical citations listed in-text include placeholders for PubMed/DOI verification — live PubMed verification is recommended for final publication-quality referencing.

Juckbohne

Mucuna pruriens

Mucuna pruriens (velvet bean) is a tropical legume whose seeds naturally contain the dopaminergic precursor L‑DOPA at variable concentrations typically between <strong>~1–9% by dry weight (commonly 3–7%)</strong>. Used for millennia in Ayurvedic medicine as Kapikacchu for libido and vitality, modern research emphasizes its role as a botanical source of levodopa for symptomatic relief in Parkinsonian motor dysfunction and as a potential nootropic and fertility adjunct. Standardized extracts (capsules/tinctures) are preferred in the US market because they provide reproducible L‑DOPA content, improved stability and easier dosing compared with raw seed powder. Safety considerations mirror prescription levodopa: nausea, orthostatic hypotension, dyskinesia and psychiatric effects are dose‑related; important high‑risk interactions include monoamine oxidase inhibitors, antipsychotics and high‑dose vitamin B6. Regulatory status: sold as a dietary supplement under DSHEA in the United States (FDA post‑market jurisdiction). This article provides an evidence‑oriented, clinician‑grade review of chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, benefits, dosing strategies, interactions and US‑market quality criteria. Note: for up‑to‑date primary study PMIDs/DOIs (2020–2026), a live literature search is required; see the 'Current Research' section for next steps.

SAMe (S-Adenosylmethionin)

S-Adenosyl-L-methionine

SAMe (S-Adenosyl Methionine) is an endogenous methyl donor and metabolic cofactor synthesized from methionine and ATP that supports thousands of methylation reactions, with evidence-based uses for depression, osteoarthritis and certain liver conditions. Commercial SAMe is sold as stabilized salts (commonly tosylate disulfate) and is typically formulated as enteric-coated tablets or capsules to improve oral stability and tolerability. Clinical oral dosing ranges from <strong>200–1,600 mg/day</strong> with many trials using <strong>800–1,600 mg/day</strong> for depression and <strong>600–1,200 mg/day</strong> for osteoarthritis. SAMe’s pharmacology is unique because it acts not on receptors but as an activated methyl donor for DNA/RNA/protein/phospholipid methyltransferases and indirectly supports glutathione synthesis via the transsulfuration pathway. It is generally well tolerated, but important safety considerations include risk of serotonergic potentiation with antidepressants and induction of mania in bipolar disorder. This article is a comprehensive, evidence-focused encyclopedia-level review written for US clinicians and educated consumers, covering chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, indications, dosing, interactions, product selection and practical tips.

Magnesium-L-Threonat

Magnesium L-threonate

Magnesium L-Threonate (MgT) represents a groundbreaking advancement in mineral supplementation, specifically engineered to cross the blood-brain barrier and elevate central nervous system magnesium levels. Developed in 2010 by Dr. Guosong Liu and colleagues at MIT and Tsinghua University, this novel compound emerged from screening over 2,000 magnesium formulations for optimal brain penetration. Unlike conventional magnesium supplements that primarily address peripheral deficiencies, MgT utilizes L-threonic acid—a natural vitamin C metabolite—as a carrier molecule to deliver magnesium directly to neural tissues. Clinical research demonstrates significant cognitive benefits, including enhanced learning and memory, reduced anxiety, improved sleep quality, and potential neuroprotective effects against age-related cognitive decline. The compound works by increasing synaptic density in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, optimizing NMDA receptor function, and elevating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) expression. With a standard dosage of 1,500-2,000 mg daily (providing approximately 144 mg elemental magnesium), MgT has earned GRAS status and represents a paradigm shift from general magnesium supplementation to targeted neurological support.

Lithiumorotat

Lithium orotate

<p><strong>Lithium orotate is an over-the-counter lithium salt marketed as a low‑dose mood and cognitive supplement; typical OTC servings deliver approximately <strong>1–5 mg elemental lithium per day</strong>, which is <strong>~0.3–1.6%</strong> of prescription lithium elemental doses used in bipolar disorder.</strong> This article provides an encyclopedic, clinically rigorous review of lithium orotate’s chemistry, pharmacology, proposed mechanisms, available human evidence (largely extrapolated from prescription lithium), dosing practices used in supplements, safety considerations, drug interactions, regulatory context in the United States (FDA/NIH), and pragmatic guidance for clinicians and consumers.</p><p><strong>Key scientific reality:</strong> the biological effects of lithium orotate derive from the lithium cation (Li+) and not from an established pharmacodynamic role of the orotate counter‑ion; high‑quality human trials specifically of lithium orotate are scarce, so most clinical inferences rely on extensive data for prescription lithium carbonate/citrate and epidemiologic studies of trace lithium.</p>

Theacrin

1,3,7,9-tetramethyluric acid

Theacrine (1,3,7,9-tetramethyluric acid) is a purine-derived alkaloid used in dietary supplements for energy, focus, mood and athletic performance. Typical consumer dosing in the U.S. market ranges from <strong>50–200 mg per day</strong>. Theacrine is found naturally in kucha tea (Camellia assamica var. kucha) and is also produced synthetically for ingredient supply. Emerging clinical and preclinical evidence suggests acute improvements in perceived energy, focus and some exercise outcomes with a safety profile generally similar to low-to-moderate caffeine doses; however, large-scale and long-term human safety and pharmacokinetic data remain limited. This premium, evidence-oriented guide summarizes chemistry, pharmacology, mechanisms of action, clinical benefits, dosing, drug interactions, contraindications and quality-selection criteria relevant for U.S. consumers and clinicians. NOTE: several primary study citations and definitive PK parameters are limited in independent peer-reviewed literature; I can retrieve and append verified PubMed IDs/DOIs on request.

Dynamin (Methylliberin)

2-methoxy-1,7,9-tetramethyluric acid

<p><strong>Dynamine (methylliberine) is a synthetic methylurate stimulant sold in supplements, commonly dosed at <strong>100–200 mg</strong> per serving and promoted for rapid-onset energy and focus with limited independent human data.</strong></p><p>This concise summary explains what Dynamine is, how it differs chemically from caffeine and theacrine, why clinical evidence remains sparse, and practical guidance for U.S. consumers and clinicians. Expect conservative recommendations: typical consumer doses range from <strong>50–250 mg/day</strong>, avoid use in pregnancy and uncontrolled cardiovascular disease, and treat drug interactions as theoretical but potentially clinically important.</p>