Fatty Acids

Fischöl

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Fish oil is a concentrated source of long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (EPA and DHA) derived from cold-water fish and fish byproducts. Clinically, standardized fish-oil preparations (both over-the-counter triglyceride/ethyl ester forms and prescription formulations such as icosapent ethyl) have been evaluated in large randomized trials and meta-analyses for cardiovascular risk reduction, triglyceride lowering, anti-inflammatory effects, and neurocognitive support. This premium guide synthesizes pharmacology, molecular mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, high-quality clinical evidence (including REDUCE-IT, JELIS, GISSI, STRENGTH, VITAL), dosing recommendations referencing NIH/ODS guidance, safety, drug interactions, and practical US-focused product selection criteria (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab). Data are current through June 2024 and include primary trial citations (DOI/PMID) for key studies I am confident exist; consult primary sources or PubMed for verification and product-label specifics.

EPA (Eicosapentaensäure)

Eicosapentaenoic acid

DHA (Docosahexaensäure)

Docosahexaenoic acid

DHA (Docosahexaenoic Acid) is a 22‑carbon long‑chain omega‑3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC‑PUFA) that is the principal structural omega‑3 in neuronal and retinal membranes. This premium, encyclopedia‑level guide summarizes chemistry, biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence for clinical benefits (neurodevelopment, triglyceride lowering, anti‑inflammatory effects, mood, pregnancy outcomes, retinal health, and more), dosing recommendations, formulation comparisons (EE, TG, rTG, FFA, phospholipid, algal), drug interactions, contraindications, quality criteria for US consumers, and practical tips. The article integrates authoritative regulatory and guidance points (FDA, NIH/ODS) and explains product selection (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab/IFOS), storage and oxidation prevention, and real-world market considerations for the US. Where verifiable clinical‑trial identifiers (PMID/DOI) are required, this document notes the need for live literature retrieval to supply up‑to‑date PubMed/DOI references and offers to fetch them on request. Practical takeaways are provided for clinicians, researchers and informed consumers seeking evidence‑based DHA use.

Krillöl

Euphausia superba oil

<p><strong>Krill oil is a marine-derived dietary oil that supplies phospholipid-bound EPA+DHA and natural astaxanthin — typical retail preparations provide <strong>~100–300 mg combined EPA+DHA per 1 g krill oil</strong>.</strong> Krill oil is distinct from fish oil because a large fraction of its omega-3 fatty acids are esterified to <em>phosphatidylcholine</em>, which may improve membrane incorporation and tolerability. Produced from Antarctic <em>Euphausia superba</em>, krill oil products are marketed for triglyceride lowering, inflammatory modulation, joint comfort, cognitive support, and general cardiovascular health. Quality selection should prioritize Certificates of Analysis (COA) showing EPA/DHA content, oxidation markers (peroxide/anisidine/TOTOX within acceptable ranges), contaminant testing (PCBs, dioxins, heavy metals), and sustainability traceability (CCAMLR compliance or equivalent). This guide summarizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence-based benefits, dosing, interactions, and US-specific regulatory and purchasing guidance for clinicians and informed consumers.</p>

Algenöl

Schizochytrium sp. oil

Algal oil is a DHA‑dominant microalgal triglyceride oil produced from thraustochytrid species (notably Schizochytrium/Aurantiochytrium) that supplies long‑chain omega‑3 fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). It is a sustainable vegetarian source of DHA used in prenatal supplements, infant formula, medical foods, and general omega‑3 products. This premium article exhaustively reviews identification, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits (with evidence summaries), dosing, safety, drug interactions, product quality criteria for the US market, and practical consumer guidance. Note: Specific PubMed IDs/DOIs for recent trials are not embedded in this document because live database access is required to verify identifiers; I can fetch and append verified PMIDs/DOIs on request.

Leinöl

Linum usitatissimum oil

Flaxseed oil (linseed oil) is a plant-derived triglyceride preparation exceptionally rich in alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), typically providing <strong>45–60% ALA by fatty acid content</strong>. Used as a dietary supplement in liquid or capsule form, flaxseed oil supplies the essential omega‑3 fatty acid ALA that humans cannot synthesize. It is absorbed in the small intestine, incorporated into chylomicrons, and partly converted to long-chain n‑3 fatty acids (EPA, DPA) at limited rates (<strong>EPA conversion ~5–15% in men and higher in women</strong>). Clinical data support modest triglyceride lowering, small reductions in inflammatory markers, and benefits for skin hydration and dry eye symptoms when consumed at <strong>1–4 g ALA/day</strong). Quality and freshness are critical because the oil is highly unsaturated (iodine value ~<strong>170–200</strong>) and prone to oxidation; choose cold‑pressed, low‑peroxide products stored refrigerated. (Sources: NIH/ODS; USDA; primary lipid biochemistry literature.)

Alpha-Linolensäure (ALA)

Alpha-linolenic acid

Alpha-Linolenic Acid (ALA) is an essential plant-derived omega‑3 fatty acid (18:3 n‑3) that humans must obtain from food; the US Adequate Intake is <strong>1.6 g/day for men and 1.1 g/day for women</strong>. This premium encyclopedia entry synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection (US market), and practical advice — drawn from authoritative sources (NIH/ODS, IOM, FAO, PubChem) and a consolidated evidence profile — for clinicians, researchers, and informed consumers.

Lebertran

Gadus morhua hepatis oleum

Cod liver oil is a traditional marine-derived nutraceutical rich in preformed vitamin A (retinol), vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), and long-chain omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA). Historically used to prevent rickets and support joint health, modern formulations are refined and standardized for EPA/DHA and vitamin content and are tested for contaminants. This comprehensive, evidence-focused encyclopedia article explains chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical benefits (with levels of evidence), dosing guidance, safety (including teratogenicity risk from vitamin A), drug interactions, product selection for US consumers, and practical tips for safe use. Note: clinical trial PMIDs/DOIs and a curated 2020–2026 study list are available on request and can be added following live literature retrieval to ensure fully verifiable citations.

Nachtkerzenöl

Oenothera biennis oil

Evening Primrose Oil (EPO) is a cold-pressed seed oil from Oenothera biennis that supplies linoleic acid and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Typical seed oil contains <strong>approximately 8–14% oil by weight</strong> and oil formulations commonly deliver <strong>7–10% GLA</strong> (≈35–300 mg GLA per typical daily supplement). This premium guide summarizes chemistry, pharmacology, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection for the US market, and next steps for retrieving direct 2020–2026 primary-study citations. It is written for clinicians, researchers and educated consumers seeking an exhaustive, medically rigorous reference on EPO as a nutraceutical.

Gamma-Linolensäure (GLA)

Gamma-linolenic acid

Borretschöl

Borago officinalis oil

Borage oil (cold‑pressed seed oil of Borago officinalis) is one of the richest dietary sources of gamma‑linolenic acid (GLA), a n‑6 polyunsaturated fatty acid. Typical high‑quality commercial oils contain ~20–24% GLA (≈200–600 mg GLA/day delivered by 1–3 g oil). Borage oil is used as a nutraceutical to increase tissue dihomo‑γ‑linolenic acid (DGLA) and PGE1‑type eicosanoids, with clinical research focused on atopic dermatitis, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetic neuropathy and dry skin. The oil is absorbed as triglycerides in the small intestine, packaged into chylomicrons, and incorporated into membrane phospholipids over weeks; clinically meaningful effects typically require 6–12 weeks. Safety considerations center on product quality (pyrrolizidine alkaloid testing), potential increased bleeding with anticoagulants, and avoidance during pregnancy/breastfeeding in the absence of medical supervision. This premium, evidence‑based guide summarizes chemistry, mechanisms, dosing (common therapeutic GLA range: <strong>200–600 mg/day</strong>), clinical indications, formulation choices, drug interactions and quality selection for US consumers.

Schwarzes Johannisbeersamenöl

Ribes nigrum seed oil

Black currant seed oil (BCSO) is a cold‑pressed botanical oil from Ribes nigrum seeds standardized to deliver gamma‑linolenic acid (GLA, typically <strong>15–20% of fatty acids</strong>) plus linoleic acid (LA, ~<strong>40–45%</strong>) and alpha‑linolenic acid (ALA, ~<strong>10–15%</strong>). Used since the late 20th century as a nutraceutical, BCSO supplies preformed GLA that bypasses delta‑6‑desaturase and increases dihomo‑gamma‑linolenic acid (DGLA) — a substrate for anti‑inflammatory prostaglandin‑1 (PGE1) pathways. Clinically it is most used for skin barrier support (atopic dermatitis), cyclical mastalgia, and adjunctive anti‑inflammatory effects; typical oral dosing ranges from <strong>500 mg to 2,000 mg/day</strong> providing ~<strong>50–300 mg GLA/day</strong>. This article is a comprehensive, evidence‑oriented, US‑focused encyclopedia entry covering identification, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, 8+ science‑backed benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection criteria (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab), and practical consumer guidance. NOTE: Where high‑quality randomized trials specifically using Ribes nigrum seed oil are limited, mechanistic and clinical conclusions draw on rigorously characterized GLA‑rich oil literature and biochemical principles. I can append verified PubMed IDs/DOIs on request.

Hanfsamenöl

Cannabis sativa seed oil

Hemp seed oil is a cold‑pressed vegetable oil from Cannabis sativa L. seeds that supplies essential fatty acids (typical LA 45–65%, ALA 15–25%) and lipid‑soluble micronutrients (tocopherols, phytosterols). Widely used as a culinary oil, dietary supplement, and topical emollient, hemp seed oil provides a balanced omega‑6:omega‑3 ratio near 3:1, is generally well tolerated, and has evidence for skin barrier support and nutritional EFA provision. This article synthesizes composition, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing guidance, drug interactions, safety, quality selection (US market focus), and practical usage for clinicians and informed consumers.

Omega-3-6-9-Komplex

Combined omega fatty acid complex

Omega-3-6-9 Complex is a blended dietary supplement containing long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (omega-3 and omega-6) and monounsaturated fatty acids (omega-9). These products combine marine-sourced EPA/DHA, plant-sourced ALA/LA/GLA, and oleic acid to provide a broad fatty-acid profile intended for cardiovascular, inflammatory, cognitive, skin and joint support. Evidence-based medicine supports specific, dose-dependent benefits for triglyceride lowering and (in formulation-specific cases) cardiovascular risk reduction — notably high-dose purified EPA at 4 g/day (prescription icosapent ethyl) reduced composite cardiovascular events in the REDUCE-IT trial by 25% relative risk reduction versus placebo. Quality, molecular form (triglyceride, ethyl ester, re-esterified TG, phospholipid, free fatty acid), oxidation state (peroxide/anisidine/TOTOX), and coingested dietary fat strongly determine bioavailability and clinical effect. This comprehensive article (encyclopedic level) explains chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence for at least eight clinical benefits, dosing guidelines anchored to NIH/ODS and prescription indications, safety, drug interactions, regulatory context in the U.S., and practical selection criteria including third-party certifications (USP/NSF/IFOS/ConsumerLab). Note: specific trial identifiers (PMIDs/DOIs) are cited where available; I can fetch and append full PubMed links/DOIs upon request.

Konjugierte Linolsäure (CLA)

Conjugated linoleic acid

Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) is a family of naturally occurring 18-carbon conjugated dienoic fatty acid isomers (representative formula <code>C18H32O2</code>) found mainly in ruminant meat and dairy. Commercial supplements (commonly 1.8–6.8 g/day) are synthetic isomer mixtures enriched in cis‑9,trans‑11 (c9,t11) and trans‑10,cis‑12 (t10,c12). Preclinical studies show isomer-specific effects on adipocyte biology, PPAR signaling, lipogenesis and inflammation; human randomized controlled trials report modest, inconsistent reductions in body fat (~0.5–1.0 kg over 12 weeks on average) and mixed metabolic signals (some trials report small adverse changes in insulin sensitivity at higher doses or t10,c12‑enriched products). CLA is generally well tolerated short-term, but caution is advised for people with diabetes, liver disease, pregnancy, and long-term high-dose use. This encyclopedic guide synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical evidence, dosing, interactions, safety, US-market quality guidance and practical recommendations for clinicians and informed consumers.

MCT-Öl

Medium-chain triglycerides

MCT oil (medium-chain triglyceride oil) is a concentrated dietary lipid composed mainly of C8 (caprylic) and C10 (capric) triglycerides used clinically and nutraceutically to raise circulating ketone bodies, supply rapidly oxidized energy, and assist malabsorption management. This 2,000-word, evidence-focused guide covers chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, eight clinically important benefits with quantified dosing, side effects, drug interactions, contraindications, US regulatory context (FDA / NIH), product-selection criteria (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab), and practical tips for safe use. Dosing recommendations are expressed in grams (g) and milligrams (mg) with clear titration strategies and population-specific caution (children, pregnancy, hepatic impairment). Where primary-study PubMed/DOI verification is required, this article flags the citation and supplies guidance to retrieve PMIDs/DOIs for exact trial data.

Caprylsäure (C8 MCT)

Octanoic acid

Caprylic acid (octanoic acid, C8) is an eight‑carbon saturated medium‑chain fatty acid widely used as a concentrated MCT (medium‑chain triglyceride) source. Clinically and nutritionally it is prized for very rapid intestinal absorption, portal transport to the liver, and efficient conversion to ketone bodies (β‑hydroxybutyrate and acetoacetate). Typical supplemental dosing ranges from <strong>5–30 g/day</strong>, and pure C8 triglyceride oils produce higher peak ketones than mixed MCTs. This article summarizes chemistry, metabolism, mechanisms, evidence for major benefits, dosing, safety, interactions, and practical US market guidance at an advanced, research‑level depth.

Leindotteröl

Camelina sativa oil

Camelina oil (cold‑pressed oil from Camelina sativa seeds) is a plant‑derived triglyceride rich in alpha‑linolenic acid (ALA, typically ≈30–40% of fatty acids) and natural tocopherols. This comprehensive, encyclopedia‑level guide summarizes identification, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, quality criteria for the US market, and practical consumer guidance. Designed for clinicians, researchers and informed consumers, the article emphasizes evidence strength, mechanistic rationale and regulatory context (US FDA/DSHEA), and explains where primary human trial evidence is currently limited and how to obtain up‑to‑date trial citations.

Walnussöl

Juglans regia oil

Walnut oil (Juglans regia oil) is a cold‑pressed or refined vegetable oil rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids — predominantly linoleic acid (ω‑6) and a variable but nutritionally meaningful amount of alpha‑linolenic acid (ALA, plant ω‑3). Used as a culinary finishing oil, supplement (softgels), and topical emollient, walnut oil supplies essential fatty acids, tocopherols, and phenolic minor components. It is oxidation‑prone and must be stored cold and dark; replacing dietary saturated fat with walnut oil can improve lipid profiles and endothelial function over weeks to months. Walnut oil is contraindicated in individuals with tree‑nut allergy and should be used cautiously in patients on anticoagulants or with severe hypertriglyceridemia. This premium, evidence‑driven encyclopedia entry synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, therapeutic uses, dosing guidance, interactions, safety, product selection for the US market, and practical tips for clinicians and informed consumers. NOTE: For the obligatory list of post‑2020 clinical trials with validated PMIDs/DOIs, a live PubMed search is required; see the Scientific Studies section for next steps.

Chiasamenöl

Salvia hispanica seed oil

Chia seed oil is a cold-pressed, plant-derived triglyceride oil extracted from Salvia hispanica L. seeds and is among the richest botanical sources of the essential omega-3 fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), typically supplying <strong>~50–65% ALA of total fatty acids</strong>. Used as a dietary supplement, culinary oil, and topical ingredient, chia oil delivers concentrated ALA without marine sources, making it attractive to vegetarian and vegan consumers. Its biochemical actions include incorporation into membrane phospholipids, partial conversion to EPA (limited conversion to DHA), PPAR activation, and modulation of eicosanoid and inflammatory pathways. Practical use emphasizes refrigeration, light- and oxygen-protective packaging, and co-formulation with antioxidants (tocopherols) to limit oxidative rancidity. Typical supplemental strategies aim to provide <strong>~1.0–2.0 g ALA/day</strong> (equivalent to roughly 1.5–4 g chia oil depending on oil ALA content), with clinical effects on triglycerides, inflammation markers, skin barrier support, and modest cardiovascular endpoints developing over weeks to months. This article is a comprehensive, evidence-focused encyclopedia-level review tailored to US clinicians, formulators, and informed consumers, with practical product-selection guidance referencing FDA and NIH/ODS frameworks and US market considerations.

Perillaöl

Perilla frutescens oil

<p><strong>Perilla oil is a plant-derived dietary oil that typically contains <strong>45–65% alpha‑linolenic acid (ALA)</strong>, making it one of the richest botanical sources of omega‑3 ALA.</strong></p><p>This premium encyclopedic summary synthesizes current mechanistic, pharmacokinetic, safety, dosing and practical selection information for perilla (Perilla frutescens) seed oil as used in the United States as a culinary and nutraceutical product. It explains what perilla oil is, its chemical profile, how ALA from perilla is absorbed and converted in humans, and the molecular basis for cardiovascular, anti‑inflammatory, dermatologic and allergy‑related benefits. The article emphasizes product quality, oxidative stability, formulation differences (liquid vs softgel vs microencapsulation), and US‑specific guidance on labeling, certifications, and retailers. Safety, contraindications, and drug interactions — particularly bleeding risk with anticoagulants and absorption reduction with lipase inhibitors and bile sequestrants — are covered with clear, actionable recommendations. Practical dosing guidance is given (typical supplemental perilla oil doses 1,000–3,000 mg/day providing roughly 500–1,800 mg ALA), recommended timing with meals, and expected onset times for biomarker and symptomatic change (weeks to months). The piece is written for clinicians, nutrition scientists, and informed consumers in the US market seeking an evidence‑based review of perilla oil as a plant omega‑3 source.

Sacha-Inchi-Öl

Plukenetia volubilis oil

Sacha Inchi oil (cold-pressed seed oil from Plukenetia volubilis) is a specialty Amazonian vegetable oil exceptionally rich in the plant omega-3 alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), typically supplying 35–55% ALA by fatty-acid composition. This premium encyclopedia entry synthesizes botanical identity, chemical composition, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, evidence-graded clinical benefits, safety, drug interactions, dosing guidance (typical 5–15 mL/day), quality selection for the U.S. market, and practical consumer guidance. The article emphasizes that while sacha inchi is a valuable plant-source of ALA for vegans and those preferring plant oils, human conversion of ALA to EPA/DHA is limited (<1–8% to EPA, typically <1% to DHA), so expectations should be calibrated. For regulatory context it covers DSHEA, FDA labeling basics, and U.S. product selection criteria (CoA, peroxide/TOTOX values, third-party testing). Note: I cannot fetch live PubMed records from the web in this session; targeted PMIDs/DOIs can be added on request via a live literature lookup.

Ahiflower-Öl

Buglossoides arvensis oil

Ahiflower oil is a cold-pressed seed oil derived from the plant Buglossoides arvensis (syn. Echium plantagineum family), notable for its high content of the omega-3 fatty acid stearidonic acid (SDA). As a plant-based source of preformed SDA, Ahiflower provides an alternative route to increase tissue eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) without relying on fish oils. Clinical trials and mechanistic studies (literature retrieval required for PMIDs/DOIs) indicate that standardized doses of Ahiflower oil can raise plasma EPA by measurable percentages within 2–12 weeks in adults, and it is marketed in the U.S. as a dietary supplement. This article is a comprehensive, encyclopedic review of Ahiflower oil’s identification, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection, and practical consumer guidance. NOTE: specific study citations (PMIDs/DOIs) are currently marked as pending because I do not have live PubMed/DOI access in this session; reply 'yes' to allow live literature retrieval so I can insert exact PMIDs/DOIs and precise trial statistics on request.

Natternkopföl

Echium plantagineum oil

Echium oil is a cold-pressed seed oil from Echium plantagineum that supplies stearidonic acid (SDA, typically ~8–20% of fatty acids) and gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, typically ~5–15%). It is a niche plant-based nutraceutical used to raise circulating EPA more efficiently than alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) sources, provide anti-inflammatory precursors, and support skin health. Commercial products prioritize low oxidation and testing for pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs). This guide synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, drug interactions, safety, quality selection and US-market practical advice in a single, evidence-focused article.

Robbenöl

Phoca/Pagophilus omega-3 oil

Seal oil is a marine mammal–derived triglyceride oil rich in long-chain omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids — principally eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Historically an essential food and topical resource for Arctic indigenous peoples, modern commercial seal oil is refined and sold as softgels or liquid nutraceuticals. Seal oil is notable for a relatively high proportion of DPA compared with many fish oils, and for supplying the same mechanistic benefits attributed to marine omega‑3s: triglyceride lowering, modest anti-inflammatory effects, platelet function modulation and contribution to neurodevelopment via DHA. Pharmacokinetics follow classical dietary fat absorption — emulsification by bile, hydrolysis by pancreatic lipase, micellar uptake and chylomicron-mediated lymphatic delivery; tissue incorporation into membrane phospholipids occurs over weeks. Typical supplemental dosing aligns with general marine omega‑3 recommendations: a maintenance range of <strong>250–1,000 mg combined EPA+DPA+DHA daily</strong>, and therapeutic triglyceride‑lowering dosing of <strong>2,000–4,000 mg/day</strong> under clinical supervision. Safety caveats center on oxidation susceptibility and potential persistent organic pollutant contamination in marine mammal oils; choose products with independent contaminant testing (COA) and follow drug‑interaction precautions (anticoagulants). This article is a comprehensive, clinically focused encyclopedia entry for US clinicians and educated consumers.