Other

Kreatin-Monohydrat

N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine monohydrate

<p><strong>Creatine monohydrate is the most-studied ergogenic dietary supplement — oral dosing of <strong>3–5 g/day</strong> reliably increases muscle creatine stores by <strong>10–40%</strong> and improves strength, power and lean mass when combined with resistance training.</strong></p><p>This premium encyclopedia entry explains what creatine monohydrate is (chemical identity, origin and manufacturing), how it is absorbed and distributed, its molecular mechanisms (creatine kinase/phosphocreatine system and cellular signaling), evidence-based benefits with exact study citations, optimal dosing protocols for athletes and clinical use, interactions, contraindications, product-quality criteria for the US market (FDA/NIH context), and practical tips for safe, effective use. The article is written for clinicians, dietitians and educated consumers seeking rigorous, actionable guidance and includes direct links to authoritative sources (NIH ODS, PubChem) and the International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand (Kreider et al., 2017; DOI:10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z).</p>

Kreatin-HCL

Creatine hydrochloride

<p><strong>Creatine HCl is a synthetic hydrochloride salt of creatine designed for higher water solubility than creatine monohydrate and is marketed to deliver the same ergogenic creatine base with smaller powder volumes.</strong> This 200-word summary explains what Creatine HCl is, how it works, who benefits, recommended dosing conventions (based on established creatine literature), safety considerations, and the current evidence gap: robust independent randomized trials comparing Creatine HCl to creatine monohydrate are scarce. The physiological active molecule after absorption is creatine; the HCl counter-ion modifies physicochemical properties (not the bioactivity). For exercise performance and muscle mass, the clinical evidence base overwhelmingly supports creatine monohydrate (meta-analyses and the International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand). Manufacturers claim improved solubility and gastrointestinal tolerance for Creatine HCl; these formulation advantages can be helpful for ready-to-drink products or consumers with monohydrate intolerance, but users should choose third-party–tested products and dose to provide an equivalent creatine base. Before beginning supplementation, check renal function in at-risk individuals and inform prescribers (creatine raises serum creatinine measurements without necessarily indicating renal damage). Authoritative references: Kreider et al. (2017) <em>ISSN position stand</em> (DOI: <a href="https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z">10.1186/s12970-017-0173-z</a>) and NIH ODS Creatine Fact Sheet (https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/Creatine-Consumer/).</p>

MSM

Methylsulfonylmethane

<p><strong>MSM (Methylsulfonylmethane) is a small, odorless organosulfur molecule commonly used as a dietary supplement at doses of <strong>1,500–3,000 mg/day</strong> for joint pain, exercise recovery, and skin support.</strong> MSM (IUPAC: <em>Dimethyl sulfone</em>, CAS 67-71-0) appears naturally at low concentrations in many foods and tissues and is manufactured industrially by oxidation of DMSO to a high-purity crystalline powder. Clinical and preclinical research over the past three decades reports consistent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant actions, with randomized trials and open-label studies frequently using gram-level daily doses and reporting symptom improvement within <strong>2–12 weeks</strong> depending on indication. MSM is generally well tolerated; most adverse events are mild gastrointestinal complaints. In the US market MSM is sold as a dietary supplement under DSHEA; consumers are advised to choose GMP- or third-party-tested products from reputable retailers (Amazon, iHerb, GNC, Vitacost, Thorne).</p>

Spirulina

Arthrospira platensis

Spirulina (commercially marketed Arthrospira spp.) is a high-protein cyanobacterial biomass containing <strong>approximately 50–70% protein by dry weight</strong>, concentrated phycobiliproteins (notably C-phycocyanin), carotenoids, vitamins and minerals. Widely produced in controlled ponds and photobioreactors, spirulina is used as a dietary supplement for antioxidant support, immune modulation, lipid and glycemic improvements, and as a plant-based protein. This guide synthesizes biochemical mechanisms, practical dosing (common supplemental range <strong>1–3 g/day</strong>, therapeutic ranges up to <strong>4–8 g/day</strong> in clinical trials), safety considerations (major risk is contamination with microcystins/heavy metals), drug interaction cautions (anticoagulants, immunosuppressants, antidiabetics), and quality selection criteria for the US market (look for batch Certificates of Analysis, third-party testing such as NSF/USP/ConsumerLab). This is a science-forward, clinician-grade overview adapted for US consumers and healthcare professionals; if you want verifiable PMIDs/DOIs for recent trials (2020–2026), I can retrieve and append them on request.

Chlorella

Chlorella vulgaris

Chlorella is a single-celled freshwater green microalga widely used as a concentrated whole-food nutraceutical. This premium guide summarizes taxonomy, cultivation and processing, chemical composition (notably <strong>40–60% protein by dry weight</strong> in many strains), biochemistry, pharmacokinetics by constituent class, molecular mechanisms (antioxidant, immunomodulatory, bile-acid binding), evidence-based clinical effects across cardiometabolic, hepatic, immune and detoxification outcomes, practical dosing (typical clinical dosing <strong>2–6 g/day</strong>), drug interaction and contraindication guidance, and a US-focused product selection checklist emphasizing third-party testing (CoA, heavy metals, microcystins) and GMP/NSF/USP verification. Because I cannot perform live literature retrieval in this session, study-specific PMIDs/DOIs are not embedded here — I can fetch verified citations and raw trial data on request. This summary is written for clinicians, researchers, and informed consumers seeking an evidence-focused, practical monograph for the US market.

Beta-Alanin

3-Aminopropanoic acid

Beta-Alanine (IUPAC: 3-Aminopropanoic acid; CAS 107-95-9) is a non-proteinogenic beta-amino acid and the rate-limiting precursor for intramuscular carnosine synthesis — the primary mechanism underlying its well-documented ergogenic effects. Unlike its structural isomer alpha-alanine, beta-alanine carries its amino group on the beta carbon, making it biochemically unique. Taken at 3.2–6.4 g/day in divided doses for 4–12 weeks, beta-alanine reliably increases skeletal muscle carnosine by 40–80%, enhancing intracellular pH buffering during high-intensity exercise. Multiple meta-analyses confirm statistically significant improvements in exercise performance for efforts lasting 60–240 seconds — the glycolytic "sweet spot" where intracellular acidosis is most performance-limiting. The characteristic side effect is dose-dependent paresthesia (tingling/flushing), affecting up to 55–70% of users with immediate-release bolus doses but reduced to approximately 10–12% with sustained-release formulations. Regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA in the United States, beta-alanine is one of the most rigorously researched ergogenic aids in sports nutrition, with clear applications for competitive athletes, recreational exercisers, and emerging research in older adults for functional capacity support.

L-Citrullin

2-Amino-5-(carbamoylamino)pentanoic acid

L-Citrulline is a non-proteinogenic amino acid — CAS 372-75-8, molecular formula C₆H₁₃N₃O₃ — first isolated from watermelon in 1914 and now recognized as one of the most effective oral precursors to nitric oxide (NO) in the human body. Unlike L-arginine, citrulline bypasses hepatic first-pass arginase catabolism, reliably elevating plasma arginine and downstream NO production to support endothelial vasodilation, blood pressure regulation, and exercise performance. Synthesized endogenously in intestinal enterocytes as a urea cycle intermediate, citrulline is converted to arginine in renal proximal tubule cells via argininosuccinate synthase and lyase. Clinically, supplemental L-citrulline (3–6 g/day) has demonstrated benefits for borderline hypertension, mild-to-moderate erectile dysfunction, exercise capacity, muscle recovery, and ammonia clearance. In specialized pediatric metabolic medicine, it is a cornerstone therapy for select urea cycle disorders. Available as pure powder or citrulline malate blends, it is generally well-tolerated with mild GI side effects at standard doses. This comprehensive guide covers its biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, evidence-based benefits, optimal dosing, drug interactions, safety profile, and practical consumer guidance for the US market.

Citrullin-Malat

L-Citrulline DL-Malate

Citrulline malate (CM) is a dietary supplement combining L-citrulline — a non-proteinogenic amino acid first isolated from watermelon in 1914 — with DL-malic acid, a natural Krebs-cycle intermediate found in apples and other fruits. Available in 1:1 or 2:1 (citrulline:malate) stoichiometries, CM is classified under DSHEA as a dietary supplement in the United States. Its primary mechanism of action is dual: L-citrulline is converted in the kidneys to L-arginine via argininosuccinate synthase (ASS) and argininosuccinate lyase (ASL), raising systemic arginine levels more effectively than oral L-arginine itself, thereby fueling endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) and boosting nitric oxide (NO) production. Meanwhile, malate feeds the tricarboxylic acid (TCA/Krebs) cycle, potentially enhancing aerobic ATP turnover and attenuating metabolic fatigue. Clinically, CM at 6–8 g pre-workout has been studied for improvements in resistance exercise performance, reduction of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), blood pressure modulation, and adjunctive erectile function support. It is generally well tolerated in healthy adults, with the primary adverse effects being gastrointestinal at higher doses. Athletes should seek NSF Certified for Sport products; all consumers should verify stoichiometry on the Certificate of Analysis.

L-Arginin

2-Amino-5-guanidinopentanoic acid

L-Arginine is a conditionally essential, proteinogenic amino acid (CAS 74-79-3; molecular formula C₆H₁₄N₄O₂; MW 174.20 g/mol) that serves as the sole physiological substrate for nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzymes — making it indispensable for vascular health, erectile function, immune defense, and metabolic signaling. Discovered in 1886 by Ernst Schulze and Ernst Steiger from lupin seeds, arginine gained transformative scientific relevance in 1998 when the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded for nitric oxide biology. In the body, arginine is converted by eNOS, nNOS, and iNOS into nitric oxide (NO), a gaseous signaling molecule that relaxes blood vessel walls, reduces platelet aggregation, and supports erectile physiology. Arginine also fuels the urea cycle, donates the guanidino group for creatine biosynthesis, and activates the mTORC1 nutrient-sensing complex via lysosomal sensors. Clinical evidence supports its use for endothelial dysfunction, mild-to-moderate hypertension, erectile dysfunction, wound healing, and growth hormone stimulation. Standard supplemental doses range from 2–6 g/day. Oral bioavailability is moderate (20–45%) due to first-pass arginase metabolism, which is why L-citrulline is often preferred for sustained plasma arginine elevation. Available in multiple forms including free base, HCl salt, AAKG, and stabilized arginine silicate complexes, it is sold as a dietary supplement under FDA/DSHEA regulation in the United States.

AAKG

Arginine Alpha-Ketoglutarate

AAKG (arginine alpha‑ketoglutarate) is a synthetic dietary salt combining L‑arginine and alpha‑ketoglutarate that emerged in the sports‑nutrition market in the 1990s and is commonly dosed at 1–3 g per serving; it is marketed to support nitric oxide (NO) production, muscle perfusion, and metabolic anaplerosis. This premium, evidence‑focused encyclopedia entry reviews chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical evidence, dosing, safety, drug interactions, selection criteria for US consumers, and practical guidance — emphasizing where human data are robust and where evidence is limited or extrapolated from component (L‑arginine and AKG) studies. The article clarifies that high‑quality randomized controlled trials isolating AAKG are limited and provides actionable recommendations for clinicians, athletes, and informed consumers.

Bienenpollen

Pollen granules

Bee pollen is a natural, heterogeneous mixture of microscopic pollen grains collected and pelletized by honey bees and used worldwide as a nutritional and apitherapeutic supplement. This article provides a rigorous, clinically oriented encyclopedia entry describing bee pollen’s origin, composition (macronutrients, vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, carotenoids and sterols), mechanisms of action (antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory), pharmacokinetics of representative constituents, clinical evidence for eight+ benefits, dosing guidance used in trials and consumer products, known drug interactions and contraindications, safety data (including allergic risk and contamination concerns), quality-selection criteria for the US market, and practical consumer tips. The article synthesizes preclinical and clinical literature, highlights gaps in human randomized controlled trials, and offers actionable recommendations for clinicians and informed consumers considering bee pollen as a dietary supplement.

Gelée Royale

Royal Jelly

Royal jelly is a bee-secreted, nutrient-dense apicultural product composed of ~50–70% water, 9–18% proteins (notably Major Royal Jelly Proteins — MRJPs), unique medium-chain fatty acids including 10-hydroxy-2-decenoic acid (10‑HDA ≈ C10H18O3), vitamins (B-complex), minerals and acetylcholine. Used traditionally as a tonic and topically for wound care, modern commercial forms include fresh, frozen and lyophilized powders standardized by 10‑HDA content. Clinical evidence is mixed: modest, medium-quality trials suggest benefits for some menopausal symptoms and topical wound healing, while metabolic, immunologic and neuroprotective claims are supported mainly by preclinical studies. Major safety concern is allergic reactions — anaphylaxis has been reported — so royal jelly is contraindicated in individuals with bee-product allergies. In the US, royal jelly is marketed as a dietary supplement under DSHEA; manufacturers should provide Certificates of Analysis (10‑HDA, heavy metals, microbial testing) and follow GMP. This comprehensive, evidence-focused encyclopedia article synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, drug interactions, safety and practical purchasing guidance for U.S. consumers and clinicians.

Propolis

Propolis

Propolis ("bee glue") is a complex resinous polyphenolic mixture that honeybees produce from plant exudates; standardized extracts containing 300–1,000 mg/day of propolis polyphenols are commonly used as oral nutraceuticals and topical wound-care agents. This premium article summarizes origin, chemistry, pharmacokinetics of major constituents (e.g., CAPE, pinocembrin), molecular mechanisms (NF-κB inhibition, Nrf2 activation), clinical indications (oral health, wound healing, URIs, antioxidant support), dosing, safety (contact allergy 1–5% in exposed groups), drug interactions (warfarin caution), quality criteria and practical shopping tips for the U.S. market.

Kolostrum

Bovine Colostrum

Colostrum is the nutrient- and bioactive-rich first mammary secretion produced during the first 24–72 hours after parturition. Bovine colostrum (BC) is used as a dietary supplement in the US to support mucosal immunity, gut barrier function and exercise recovery; clinical trials commonly use powdered doses of <strong>10–20 g/day</strong>. This premium, encyclopedia-level article synthesizes composition, mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, dosing guidance, safety, drug interactions and US-market quality criteria. Note: I cannot fetch live PubMed/DOI records from this environment; I summarize primary-source knowledge available in established clinical literature and clearly flag where live citations are required. If you would like verified PubMed IDs/DOIs and exact trial statistics (2020–2026), I can retrieve them with your permission to access online resources.

Aktivkohle

Activated Carbon

Activated charcoal is a highly porous form of carbon used medically as a gastrointestinal adsorbent; a single hospital dose ranges from <strong>25–100 g</strong> for acute oral poisoning, and it is engineered by high-temperature activation of carbonaceous precursors (coconut shell, wood, coal) to achieve <strong>500–2000 m2/g</strong> internal surface area. This premium, encyclopedia-level article synthesizes production, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence-based clinical benefits, safety, dosing, drug interactions, product selection and practical tips for US consumers and clinicians. It highlights emergency indications supported by toxicology guidance, contrasts consumer ‘detox’ marketing with evidence, lists contraindications and offers an actionable quality checklist (USP/NSF/third-party testing). Note: I currently do not have live web access to verify PubMed IDs/DOIs for every cited trial; I can fetch and append precise PMIDs/DOIs and direct links on request — please permit a web-enabled lookup for full AI-citable references.

Diatomeenerde

Amorphous Silica

Diatomaceous earth (DE) is a naturally occurring, silica-rich powder formed from fossilized diatom frustules; food-grade DE is primarily amorphous <code>SiO2</code> and is used industrially as a filter aid and insecticide and marketed to consumers as a supplement despite limited human clinical evidence. This 2000-word, science-first encyclopedia entry synthesizes regulatory reviews (EFSA 2018 DOI:10.2903/j.efsa.2018.5220; NIOSH 2002), toxicology profiles (ATSDR 2018), physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics as applicable to particulate silica, mechanisms of action, an evidence-graded benefits section (industrial, agricultural, speculative nutritional claims), dosing practices observed in the US marketplace (consumer doses typically range from <strong>500 mg</strong> to <strong>10 g/day</strong>), safety and drug interaction guidance, quality-selection criteria for US consumers (COAs, heavy metals testing, XRD crystalline silica fraction), and practical recommendations. The article emphasizes that robust human randomized controlled trials of oral food-grade DE for systemic health claims are absent and that soluble silicic acid preparations are the evidence-backed option when systemic silicon is desired.

Bentonit-Ton

Montmorillonite

Bentonite clay is a naturally occurring montmorillonite-rich smectite clay used industrially and in consumer products for its exceptional adsorption and swelling properties. In medicine and nutraceuticals it is applied topically (masks, wound poultices) and used orally in the complementary-health market as a non-absorbed intraluminal adsorbent for symptoms such as diarrhoea or to sequester certain toxins. Bentonite is not a single chemical entity; composition, cation-exchange capacity and contaminant profile vary by deposit and processing. There is mechanistic and robust industrial evidence for adsorption of mycotoxins and heavy metals in vitro and in animal feed studies; human clinical trial evidence for health claims is limited and heterogeneous. Safety concerns focus on inhalation of dust (respirable crystalline silica), potential heavy-metal contamination (lead, arsenic), and drug–nutrient sequestration when taken orally. The US regulatory context treats food/pharmaceutical uses and dietary supplements differently: manufacturers must comply with DSHEA for supplement marketing claims, and the FDA/OSHA standards govern contaminants and occupational exposures. This article synthesizes mineralogy, pharmacology, mechanistic science, practical dosing guidance and safety advice for clinicians, formulators and informed consumers.

Zeolith

Clinoptilolite

Zeolite (predominantly the natural mineral clinoptilolite) is a microporous crystalline aluminosilicate used industrially and increasingly marketed as a dietary supplement for "detox" and gut health. Clinoptilolite acts in the gastrointestinal lumen by physical adsorption and cation exchange — it is not systemically absorbed. Typical pore sizes are <strong>0.3–0.7 nm</strong> and common commercial doses range from <strong>1–3 g/day</strong>. Evidence supporting benefits (ammonium sequestration, reduced gut toxin exposure, improved stool consistency) is stronger in in vitro and animal studies than in high-quality human randomized controlled trials. Safety considerations are product purity (absence of fibrous contaminants such as erionite), inhalation risk for fine powders, and potential binding of oral drugs and minerals (separate dosing by <strong>2–4 hours</strong>). High-quality human trials, standardized product characterization, and verified PubMed-cited studies (2020–2026) are currently limited; I can retrieve and insert verified PMIDs/DOIs on request.

Shilajit

Asphaltum punjabianum

Shilajit is a naturally occurring, dark brown–black, tar-like exudate formed over centuries by the biodegradation of plant matter and microbial activity in high-altitude rocks (Himalayas, Altai, Caucasus). Modern analysis shows it is a complex humic–fulvic matrix containing fulvic acids (commonly ~200–2,000 Da), humic acids, dibenzo-α-pyrones (DBPs, ~300–600 g·mol⁻¹), trace minerals (Fe, Zn, Mg, etc.), amino acids and plant metabolites. Traditional Ayurvedic use (rasayana) claims benefits for energy, stamina, cognition and male reproductive health; contemporary research proposes mechanisms including mitochondrial bioenergetic support, antioxidant/Nrf2 activation, NF-κB attenuation, and mineral chelation. Typical clinical dosing ranges from <strong>100–500 mg/day</strong> of purified resin (some products standardized to fulvic acid), with trial periods of <strong>8–12 weeks</strong> to assess benefit. Safety concerns center on contamination (lead, arsenic, mercury, PAHs, mycotoxins) in unpurified preparations; choose products with batch Certificates of Analysis (CoA) showing heavy metal and microbial testing. High-quality evidence in humans remains limited and heterogeneous; mechanistic support is stronger in vitro and in animals. For clinical decision-making, use purified, third-party tested products, monitor interacting therapies (antidiabetics, anticoagulants, immunosuppressants), and avoid use in pregnancy/breastfeeding unless supervised.

Fulvinsäure

Fulvic Acid

Fulvic acid is a heterogeneous, water‑soluble fraction of humic substances derived from decomposed plant and microbial matter; typical molecular weights range from <strong>~500 to 5,000 Da</strong>. This premium, encyclopedia‑level guide synthesizes chemistry, mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, safety, dosing practices used in the US nutraceutical market, and practical selection criteria based on lot-specific laboratory testing and regulatory context (FDA/DSHEA). The article emphasizes that robust human randomized controlled trials are lacking and that most evidence is preclinical, while supplying precise manufacturing, interaction and consumer‑safety guidance relevant to clinicians, researchers and informed consumers.

Huminsäure

Humic Acid

Humic acid is an operationally defined, heterogeneous family of high‑molecular‑weight organic macromolecules derived from decomposed plant and biomass residues (peat, lignite, leonardite). Commercial preparations, often co‑marketed with fulvic acid, are used as dietary supplements for 'detox', gut support, mineral complexation, and topical balneotherapy despite limited high‑quality human clinical evidence. Chemically, humic acids contain abundant carboxyl and phenolic groups that confer strong chelating and adsorptive properties; pharmacokinetics are poorly defined because the material is polydisperse and largely unabsorbed. Typical market doses range from 50–1,000 mg/day for combined humic/fulvic blends; product quality is highly variable and contamination with heavy metals or PAHs is a key safety concern. This comprehensive, evidence‑aware encyclopedia article synthesizes chemistry, mechanisms, preclinical data, dosing guidance (market norms), drug interactions, safety, product selection criteria for US consumers, and practical usage tips, and it explains where high‑quality human evidence is lacking and why targeted literature retrieval is recommended before clinical use.

Kollagen-Peptide

Hydrolyzed Collagen

Collagen peptides (also called hydrolyzed collagen or collagen hydrolysate) are low–molecular-weight oligopeptides derived from enzymatic breakdown of animal-sourced collagen. Used as a dietary supplement, typical doses range from 2.5–15 g/day depending on intended benefit (skin, joints, bone, muscle). Randomized clinical trials report measurable improvements in skin elasticity within 8–12 weeks and modest reductions in osteoarthritis pain by 8–12 weeks for some formulations. Collagen peptides supply collagen-specific amino acids (glycine, proline, hydroxyproline), are absorbed as di-/tripeptides (e.g., Pro-Hyp detectable in plasma within 1–3 hours), and may signal dermal fibroblasts and chondrocytes to increase extracellular matrix synthesis. Safety profile is favorable; main adverse events are mild GI complaints and rare allergic reactions tied to source species. This article is a comprehensive, evidence-oriented encyclopedia entry for clinicians, nutritionists, and informed consumers in the US market.

Marines Kollagen

Fish Collagen Peptides

Rinder-Kollagen

Bovine Collagen Peptides

<p><strong>Bovine collagen peptides (hydrolyzed type I/III collagen) are a widely used dietary supplement delivering <strong>2.5–15 g/day</strong> of small peptides that support skin elasticity, joint comfort, and connective tissue repair.</strong></p><p>This premium, evidence-focused overview synthesizes biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical outcomes, dosing, safety, selection criteria for the US market, and practical guidance for clinicians and educated consumers. The article prioritizes clinical trial endpoints (skin hydration/elasticity, joint pain scores, bone turnover markers, and exercise recovery), describes expected timeframes for benefit (typically 4–12 weeks for skin/joint results), and summarizes formulation and bioavailability differences (hydrolyzed peptides ≈1–3 kDa have the highest systemic peptide detection). It also provides a US-focused buying guide (FDA/NIH context, third-party testing, price ranges in USD, and retail channels such as Amazon, iHerb, GNC, Vitacost, and brand-direct sites). Note: specific PubMed IDs/DOIs for recent studies are not embedded in this offline report; I can retrieve and append verified PMIDs/DOIs on request if you permit a live literature search.</p>

Gelatine

Hydrolyzed Collagen

Gelatin (denatured collagen) and hydrolyzed collagen (collagen peptides) are animal-derived protein preparations rich in glycine, proline and hydroxyproline that supply specific amino acids and small bioactive peptides used clinically and commercially to support skin, joint, bone and connective-tissue health. This premium, evidence-focused guide summarizes origin, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing (typical clinical doses 2.5–15 g/day), safety, drug interactions, quality criteria for US buyers, and practical usage tips. It highlights mechanistic evidence for peptide uptake (Pro-Hyp, Hyp-Gly), the role of vitamin C as an essential cofactor for collagen maturation, and the most consistent clinical signal: improvements in skin elasticity and joint symptoms after 8–12 weeks of daily supplementation. The article is written for clinicians, researchers and informed consumers in the US market and flags the need for brand-specific evidence and source transparency when selecting products.

HMB

Beta-Hydroxy Beta-Methylbutyrate

HMB (β‑Hydroxy β‑Methylbutyrate) is a leucine metabolite used as a nutraceutical to reduce muscle breakdown and support muscle mass and recovery. Clinical protocols commonly use **3 g/day** (divided doses) and randomized trials report improvements in lean mass, strength preservation during immobilization, and reduced markers of muscle damage in older adults and athletes. This article gives an in‑depth, evidence‑focused encyclopedia entry on HMB: chemical identity, pharmacokinetics, cellular mechanisms, eight+ specific benefits with mechanisms, practical dosing/timing, safety, drug interactions, US‑market quality criteria, and an annotated research summary (2020–2026) — with a note that up‑to‑date PubMed/DOI identifiers can be added on request.

Betain

Trimethylglycine

Taurin

2-Aminoethanesulfonic acid

Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid; CAS 107-35-7) is one of the most abundant free amino acids in the human body — not incorporated into proteins, yet essential for heart, retina, brain, and muscle function. Discovered in ox bile in 1827 by Tiedemann and Gmelin, taurine is a sulfonic acid with the molecular formula C₂H₇NO₃S that acts simultaneously as an osmolyte, membrane stabilizer, calcium modulator, antioxidant, and inhibitory neuromodulator. Concentrated in cardiomyocytes, skeletal muscle, photoreceptors, and leukocytes, it supports cardiovascular health, exercise recovery, glycemic control, neuroprotection, and retinal integrity. Taurine is conditionally essential in cats — dietary deficiency causes fatal cardiomyopathy and blindness — and is present in human breast milk at higher concentrations than cow's milk. In the U.S. market it is regulated as a dietary ingredient under DSHEA, is FDA-recognized in infant formula, and is commercially available from approximately $15–$100/month depending on grade and certification. Typical supplemental doses range from 500 mg to 3,000 mg/day, with an excellent safety profile at these levels. Its pleiotropic mechanisms, low cost, and robust tissue specificity make it one of the most scientifically compelling amino acid supplements available today.

GABA

Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system and is widely used as a dietary supplement for stress reduction and sleep support. This 200-word overview synthesizes biochemical identity, clinical indications, dosing, safety, mechanisms, and practical guidance for U.S. consumers. GABA supplements are available as powders, capsules, sublingual sprays, and liquids; typical consumer doses range from <strong>300–1,000 mg daily</strong> with an upper practical supplement limit of <strong>3,000 mg/day</strong>. Clinical trials and meta-analyses report reductions in subjective anxiety scores and shorter sleep latency, though study designs and product formulations vary. Oral bioavailability is limited (commonly reported <strong>~15–30% absorption</strong>), and evidence about blood–brain barrier penetration remains mixed. Major interactions include additive sedation with benzodiazepines, Z-drugs, alcohol, and other CNS depressants; pregnancy and breastfeeding are typically advised against without medical supervision. For U.S. shoppers, prioritize products with <strong>third‑party testing (NSF, USP, ConsumerLab)</strong>, clear labeling of elemental GABA per serving, and certificates of analysis. This article provides an evidence-focused, practical, and safety-first guide to GABA for clinicians, researchers, and informed consumers in the U.S. market.

PharmaGABA

Natural Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid

PharmaGABA is a fermentation-derived, food-grade preparation of gamma-aminobutyric acid (<em>GABA</em>), the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammals. Chemically <code>C4H9NO2</code>, PharmaGABA provides <strong>100–750 mg</strong> per common supplement serving and is marketed for relaxation, sleep support, mild blood-pressure reduction, and stress relief. While oral GABA reliably increases plasma concentrations within <strong>30–120 minutes</strong>, its direct crossing of an intact human blood–brain barrier is limited; clinical effects are therefore plausibly mediated by peripheral GABA receptors, vagal afferent modulation, and systemic autonomic/HPA-axis changes. PharmaGABA is generally well tolerated at typical nutraceutical doses, with mild adverse effects (drowsiness, gastrointestinal upset) reported in <strong>&lt;10%</strong> of users in published trials. In the US market PharmaGABA is sold as a dietary supplement under DSHEA; manufacturers should provide Certificates of Analysis and third-party testing (NSF/USP/ConsumerLab) to verify content and purity.

DMAE

Dimethylaminoethanol

DMAE (2-(Dimethylamino)ethanol) is a small tertiary amine commonly sold in the US as DMAE bitartrate for cognitive-support supplements and as a topical cosmetic ingredient. Typical oral supplement doses range from <strong>50–600 mg/day</strong> (most consumer products 100–300 mg/day); evidence for systemic cognitive benefits is limited and of low quality, while topical cosmetic studies show formulation-dependent, modest skin-firming effects. This concise, science-forward overview explains chemistry, pharmacokinetics, proposed mechanisms, clinical evidence, safety, drug interactions, dosing practice, product selection, and practical recommendations for US consumers and clinicians.

Alpha-GPC

L-Alpha-Glycerylphosphorylcholine

<p><strong>Alpha-GPC (L-alpha-glycerylphosphorylcholine) is a well-characterized choline donor commonly dosed at <strong>300–600 mg/day</strong> in clinical and supplement settings to support cognition and membrane repair.</strong></p><p>Alpha-GPC is a water-soluble phospholipid metabolite (chemical formula <code>C8H20NO6P</code>, molar mass <strong>257.22 g/mol</strong>) that increases plasma and brain choline availability, supports acetylcholine synthesis, and provides glycerophosphate for phosphatidylcholine biosynthesis. It is manufactured commercially from lecithin/phosphatidylcholine via controlled hydrolysis to yield the biologically active L-isomer used in high-quality supplements.</p><p>Clinical and preclinical research have explored alpha-GPC for age-related cognitive decline, post-stroke recovery, traumatic brain injury models, and acute ergogenic effects in athletes. Typical oral Tmax is <strong>0.5–2 hours</strong> and plasma half-life for choline elevation is reported at approximately <strong>4–8 hours</strong>.</p><p>This article provides an evidence-focused, US-centric guide covering chemistry, mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, interactions, product selection, and practical recommendations for clinicians and informed consumers. Note: specific PubMed IDs and DOIs for individual trials are not embedded here due to offline citation limitations; see the final section for an actionable plan to obtain verified primary-study references.</p>

CDP-Cholin

Cytidine Diphosphate Choline

Phosphatidylserin

Phosphatidylserine

<p><strong>Phosphatidylserine (PS) is a membrane phospholipid commonly supplied as a dietary supplement in doses of <strong>100–400 mg/day</strong>, with most clinical trials using 300 mg/day.</strong> This evidence-informed encyclopedia entry summarizes PS chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection, and practical guidance for U.S. consumers and clinicians. The article synthesizes the primary dataset provided (manufacturing origin, biochemical roles, typical formulations, and clinical use-cases) into an accessible medical-level reference that highlights where evidence is robust, where it remains preliminary, and how to translate doses and formulations into practice. Sections open with concise, quotable facts, and practical checklists guide product selection in the U.S. market (FDA/NIH context). This summary does not substitute for individualized medical advice.</p>

Phosphatidylcholin

Phosphatidylcholine

Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is an essential amphipathic glycerophospholipid and the most abundant phospholipid in eukaryotic cell membranes; a typical adult diet provides variable PC but clinical supplements commonly supply 300–1,200 mg/day. This encyclopedia-level guide explains the chemistry, history, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection, and US regulatory context for PC — synthesizing biochemical pathways (Kennedy/CDP-choline, PEMT), digestive handling (pancreatic PLA2 → lysophosphatidylcholine), tissue distribution (liver, lung surfactant, lipoproteins), and modern concerns (gut microbial conversion to trimethylamine → TMAO). Written for clinicians, researchers, and informed consumers, the article emphasizes evidence strength for each claimed benefit, practical dosing guidance for dietary supplementation and therapeutic EPL formulations, and safety considerations including allergen sources (soy/egg), oxidation, and TMAO risk management.

Lecithin

Phosphatidylcholine complex

Lecithin is a complex mixture of phospholipids — primarily phosphatidylcholine (PC) — used as a dietary supplement, food emulsifier and source of bioavailable choline. This evidence-focused guide explains what lecithin is, how it’s made, its biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, and the mechanistic rationale for liver, brain and bile health. It compares common forms (soy, sunflower, egg, purified PC, alpha‑GPC, citicoline), provides US-centered dosing aligned with NIH/ODS recommendations, outlines drug interactions and safety (including the choline UL of <strong>3.5 g/day</strong>), and gives practical product selection criteria for the US market (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab, COA, heavy metal and oxidation testing). NOTE: I can retrieve and append verifiable PubMed IDs/DOIs for all cited clinical studies (2020–2026) on request — please confirm if you would like me to run a targeted literature retrieval and embed the PMIDs/DOIs into the article.

SAM-e

S-Adenosyl-L-Methionine

SAM-e (S‑Adenosyl‑L‑methionine) is a naturally occurring methyl donor and a clinically studied nutraceutical with evidence for mood and joint benefits. This 200‑word summary explains what SAM‑e is, how it works biochemically, key pharmacokinetics, evidence-based clinical benefits (depression, osteoarthritis, liver support, cognition, pain modulation, fibromyalgia, neuropathy, and perimenopausal mood), major safety concerns (serotonin syndrome risk with SSRIs, potential for mania in bipolar disorder, gastrointestinal side effects), practical dosages (therapeutic range commonly reported: 400–1600 mg/day; typical clinical start 400–800 mg/day), timing and formulation advice (enteric‑coated tablets, take with food/fat for improved tolerability), and US‑market guidance (look for NSF/USP/ConsumerLab verification, third‑party COAs, choose reputable retailers such as Amazon, iHerb, Thorne, Pure Encapsulations). The article below is a premium, encyclopedic HTML review suitable for clinicians, pharmacists, and educated consumers; where precise PubMed IDs, DOIs, CAS numbers, or FDA/NIH statements are required they are marked clearly as "VERIFY" because this draft was prepared without live database access. Always consult a prescriber before starting SAM‑e, especially when taking antidepressants, anticoagulants, or mood stabilizers.

NADH

Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide

NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) is the reduced form of NAD+ and a central cellular electron carrier that donates hydride ions to the mitochondrial electron transport chain. Commercially marketed as a stabilized oral supplement since the 1980s (typical doses 5–20 mg/day), NADH is promoted for energy, cognition, fatigue and adjunctive support in Parkinson’s disease. Biochemically, NADH has molecular weight ≈ <strong>664.44 g·mol⁻¹</strong> (<code>C21H28N7O14P2</code>) and is highly water-soluble but chemically unstable to oxidation. Oral bioavailability of intact NADH is likely low (<strong>&lt;10%</strong>, not well quantified), so modern clinical research increasingly focuses on NAD+ precursors (nicotinamide riboside, NMN). This encyclopedic article provides a complete, evidence-focused synthesis of chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, historical context, clinical uses, dosing, safety, interactions, quality criteria and practical guidance for US consumers and clinicians, and it identifies where up-to-date PubMed/DOI verification is still recommended.

NMN

Nicotinamide Mononucleotide

Nicotinamide mononucleotide (NMN) is a biosynthetic precursor of NAD+ that has attracted strong interest as a dietary supplement to support cellular energy, mitochondrial function, and age-related metabolic resilience. Commercial NMN products in the US typically provide between <strong>250–500 mg/day</strong>; short-term human studies report measurable NAD+ increases with generally favorable tolerability, but long-term safety and definitive clinical benefit remain unproven. This premium, evidence-focused overview synthesizes current biochemical mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, proposed clinical benefits, dosing practices, safety signals, and practical selection criteria for US consumers and clinicians — while clearly flagging all items that require verification with up-to-date primary sources and regulatory guidance. Note: this report was prepared without live PubMed/DOI lookup; study citations, numerical values, and regulatory claims marked “PROVISIONAL — VERIFY” must be confirmed before clinical or regulatory use.

NR

Nicotinamide Riboside

PQQ

Pyrroloquinoline Quinone

<p><strong>PQQ (pyrroloquinoline quinone) is a small redox-active quinone commonly supplied as the <em>disodium salt</em> and used in supplements at <strong>10–20 mg/day</strong> to support mitochondrial health, cognitive resilience and reduced oxidative stress.</strong> This premium, evidence-focused guide summarizes chemistry, mechanisms, human dosing, safety, quality selection and practical use for U.S. consumers and clinicians. It explains why PQQ is unique (stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis via <em>PGC-1α/CREB</em> signaling rather than acting solely as a direct antioxidant), how it is absorbed and eliminated, and what the clinical trial landscape looks like (small human trials, multiple preclinical models). The article emphasizes conservative dosing, known contraindications (pregnancy, severe renal impairment, concurrent chemotherapy unless supervised), product selection (prefer PQQ disodium salt; seek third-party COAs), and realistic expectations: measurable biomarker or subjective benefits often reported in <strong>4–12 weeks</strong> with common doses of <strong>10–20 mg/day</strong>. If you would like exact PubMed IDs / DOIs for every cited human and animal study, request a targeted literature pull and I will return a validated citation set.</p>

D-Ribose

D-Ribose

D‑Ribose is a naturally occurring five-carbon sugar (an aldopentose) that is a direct substrate for nucleotide synthesis and a practical supplement to support cellular ATP replenishment. Clinical and mechanistic research beginning in the 1990s and continuing into the 2020s has tested oral D‑ribose mainly at doses of 5–15 g/day for improved myocardial energetics, exercise recovery, and symptomatic energy in disorders such as chronic fatigue and fibromyalgia. D‑Ribose is absorbed rapidly (Tmax ≈ <strong>30–60 minutes</strong>), phosphorylated intracellularly by ribokinase to ribose‑5‑phosphate, and routed into PRPP and nucleotide salvage/de novo pathways to accelerate ATP restoration. Typical consumer forms are crystalline powder and capsules; split dosing (e.g., 5 g two or three times daily) minimizes osmotic GI effects. Adverse effects are principally dose‑related gastrointestinal symptoms and potential transient hypoglycemia in patients taking insulin or insulin secretagogues; caution is recommended in diabetes, during pregnancy, and in patients receiving antimetabolite chemotherapy. This article provides an evidence‑informed, clinical‑grade review of chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection, and practical guidance for US consumers and clinicians.

Carnitin-Tartrat

L-Carnitine L-Tartrate

L-carnitine L-tartrate (commonly called Carnitine Tartrate) is a crystalline 1:1 salt of L-carnitine and L-(+)-tartaric acid widely used in sports nutrition and clinical nutraceuticals to support mitochondrial fatty-acid transport, muscle recovery, and sperm energetics. It dissociates in the gut to release elemental L-carnitine (the bioactive moiety) which is taken up by OCTN2 transporters into muscle, heart, liver and sperm. Typical supplemental ranges provide <strong>250–2,000 mg/day elemental L-carnitine</strong> depending on indication; most sports formulations supply 500–2,000 mg of the tartrate salt daily (providing ~250–1,000 mg elemental L-carnitine). Carnitine Tartrate is generally well tolerated; gastrointestinal complaints are the most frequent adverse events and higher or chronic doses may increase microbial trimethylamine (TMA) and circulating TMAO production in susceptible microbiomes (see safety section). This article presents an encyclopedic, evidence-focused synthesis for clinicians, formulators and educated consumers in the US.

Acetyl-L-Carnitin

Acetyl-L-Carnitine

Acetyl-L-Carnitine (ALCAR), CAS 5080-50-2, is a naturally occurring amino acid derivative and acetylated form of L-carnitine that uniquely crosses the blood–brain barrier — a capability that makes it far more relevant for neurological and cognitive applications than its parent compound. With a molecular formula of C₉H₁₇NO₄ and a molar mass of 203.24 g/mol, ALCAR functions at the intersection of mitochondrial energy metabolism and cholinergic neurotransmission. It donates acetyl groups that fuel acetylcholine synthesis and replenish mitochondrial acetyl-CoA pools, supporting neuronal energy and synaptic communication simultaneously. Clinical research spanning more than four decades supports its use in age-related cognitive decline, peripheral neuropathy (including diabetic), male infertility, depressive symptoms in the elderly, and exercise recovery. Typical supplemental doses range from 500 mg to 2,000 mg per day, with clinical trials most commonly employing 1,000–2,000 mg daily in divided doses. Available as capsules, tablets, powder, and oral solutions, ALCAR is regulated as a dietary supplement under DSHEA in the United States. Its safety profile is well established at standard doses, with mild gastrointestinal effects being the most common adverse reactions. When combined with alpha-lipoic acid or CoQ10, ALCAR demonstrates notable synergistic mitochondrial benefits.

GPLC

Glycine Propionyl-L-Carnitine

GPLC (glycine propionyl-L-carnitine) is a synthetic 1:1 crystalline complex of propionyl-L-carnitine (a short-chain acylcarnitine) and the amino acid glycine, marketed in the US as a dietary supplement for circulatory support, exercise performance, and mitochondrial function. Mechanistically, GPLC dissociates in the gut to deliver PLC and glycine systemically; PLC contributes propionyl groups feeding into the TCA cycle and supports carnitine-dependent acyl exchange, while GPLC/PLC improves endothelial nitric oxide bioavailability and reduces mitochondrial oxidative stress. Typical supplemental doses are in the range of 300–1,000 mg/day, with many sports formulations using 300–600 mg daily and earlier clinical PLC trials in peripheral arterial disease using gram-level doses under medical supervision. GPLC is generally well tolerated; side effects are mostly gastrointestinal and rare cases of fishy odor with very high intakes. People with propionic acidemia, severe renal impairment, pregnant or breastfeeding women should avoid GPLC unless supervised. High-quality randomized controlled trials specifically using GPLC are limited; most clinical evidence derives from propionyl-L-carnitine (PLC) studies in vascular medicine and smaller exercise physiology trials. For evidence-grade assessment, product selection, dosing, and potential drug interactions, consult a healthcare professional and request product Certificates of Analysis (CoA) and third-party testing such as NSF or USP.

5-HTP

5-Hydroxytryptophan

<strong>5-Hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP)</strong> is a naturally occurring amino acid and direct precursor to serotonin, the neurotransmitter crucial for mood, sleep, and appetite regulation. Unlike L-tryptophan, <strong>5-HTP crosses the blood-brain barrier efficiently</strong> and converts directly to serotonin without competing with other amino acids. Extracted primarily from <em>Griffonia simplicifolia</em> seeds, this compound has gained significant attention in modern neuroscience for its therapeutic potential. <mark>Clinical studies demonstrate its efficacy in treating depression, improving sleep quality, supporting weight management, and alleviating fibromyalgia symptoms.</mark> With over <strong>200 published studies</strong> and a generally favorable safety profile, 5-HTP represents a bridge between traditional herbal medicine and modern neuropharmacology. The FDA recognizes it as a dietary supplement under DSHEA, making it accessible to millions of Americans seeking natural alternatives to prescription medications for mood and sleep disorders.

Melatonin

N-Acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine

Melatonin (N‑acetyl‑5‑methoxytryptamine) is an endogenous hormone produced by the pineal gland that signals biological night and regulates circadian timing. Synthetic melatonin for oral use is chemically identical to the human molecule and is widely available in the US as an over‑the‑counter dietary supplement. Clinical research and meta‑analyses support its efficacy for reducing sleep latency (on average tens of minutes), improving sleep quality in older adults with prolonged‑release formulations, and treating circadian rhythm disorders such as jet lag and delayed sleep phase. Melatonin acts via high‑affinity GPCRs MT1 and MT2 in the suprachiasmatic nucleus to shift circadian phase and reduce neuronal firing; it also has receptor‑independent antioxidant and mitochondrial effects. Typical OTC dosing ranges from <strong>0.3 mg to 5 mg nightly</strong> for most indications, with a commonly recommended physiologic starting dose of <strong>0.3–1 mg</strong> for circadian entrainment and <strong>2 mg prolonged‑release</strong> for older adults with sleep maintenance problems. Safety is favorable at common doses, but interactions (notably with CYP1A2 inhibitors such as fluvoxamine), additive sedation with CNS depressants, and quality variability among supplements require clinician oversight for certain populations (pregnancy, breastfeeding, severe hepatic impairment, transplant recipients, and patients on warfarin). [PMID: 23620827; DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117716; PMID: 29427092]

DHEA

Dehydroepiandrosterone

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) is an abundant endogenous adrenal steroid and neurosteroid that declines ~80% from peak levels between young adulthood and older age; it is widely sold in the US as an OTC supplement (commonly 25 mg/day) and used clinically in selected indications (e.g., adrenal insufficiency quality-of-life, topical vaginal prasterone). This article provides a rigorous, clinically oriented encyclopedia-level review of DHEA: chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence-based benefits, dosing, safety, drug interactions, product selection, and regulatory context — including a transparent note about live-study citations and an offer to fetch verified PubMed IDs/DOIs on request.

Pregnenolon

3β-Hydroxypregn-5-en-20-one

Pregnenolone is a naturally occurring C21 steroid and the first steroid formed from cholesterol in human steroidogenesis; it functions both as a biochemical precursor to all major adrenal and gonadal steroids and as a neurosteroid with direct receptor modulatory actions. This premium, encyclopedia-level guide synthesizes chemical identity, history, chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, clinical evidence, dosing practice, safety, drug interactions, product selection criteria in the US market, and practical tips for clinicians and informed consumers. Content is grounded in established biochemical pathways and the supplied primary source synthesis; where human clinical trial details or up-to- date PubMed identifiers are required, readers are invited to request a targeted literature retrieval so explicit PMIDs/DOIs can be appended.

Beta-Glucan

β-D-Glucan

Beta-glucan is a family of naturally occurring polysaccharides found in oats, barley, yeast and mushrooms that act either as a soluble viscous dietary fiber (cereal β‑glucans) or as an innate‑immune modulator (fungal/yeast β‑glucans). Clinical evidence supports that <strong>consuming ≥3.0 g/day of oat or barley β‑glucan reduces LDL‑cholesterol by a consistent, clinically meaningful margin</strong>, and multiple randomized trials using standardized yeast or mushroom β‑glucans report reductions in incidence or duration of upper respiratory tract infections in high‑risk populations. This encyclopedia‑level guide summarizes chemistry, mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, eight evidence‑backed benefits, dosing, drug interactions (≥8 classes), safety, product selection for the U.S. market and practical consumer guidance. NOTE: I cannot access PubMed from this session to append direct PMIDs/DOIs to each clinical citation; I will fetch and insert verified PMIDs/DOIs on request. Use this material as a rigorous, clinician‑grade primer suitable for regulatory‑aware patient counseling and product selection in the United States.

Quercetin

3,3',4',5,7-Pentahydroxyflavone

Quercetin is a widely consumed dietary flavonol present in onions, apples, capers and many plant foods; supplemental forms (aglycone, glycosides, phytosomes) aim to harness its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. This premium, evidence-focused guide explains quercetin’s chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, eight clinically relevant benefits, up-to-date practical dosing for the U.S. market, safety, drug interactions, product selection criteria (USP/NSF/ConsumerLab), and research gaps. Recommendations prioritize formulations with validated bioavailability for systemic endpoints (e.g., isoquercetin, phytosome complexes) and conservative dosing (typically 250–500 mg/day) for adults. The article translates European guidance into U.S. regulatory context (FDA/NIH/ODS), converts pricing to USD ranges, and provides clear guidance on when to consult clinicians (anticoagulants, chemo, pregnancy). This resource is written for clinicians, nutrition scientists and informed consumers seeking a rigorous, practical synthesis of quercetin science.

Resveratrol

3,5,4'-Trihydroxy-trans-stilbene

Resveratrol is a plant-derived polyphenol (3,5,4'-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) widely studied for vascular, metabolic and anti‑inflammatory effects; typical supplemental dosing in human trials ranges from <150 mg/day to 5,000 mg/day, with common consumer doses of 100–500 mg/day. This article synthesizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, clinical evidence, dosing strategies, safety, drug interactions and product-selection criteria for the US market — presented with medical rigor and practical guidance for clinicians and informed consumers.

Pterostilben

3',5'-Dimethoxy-resveratrol

Pterostilbene is a naturally occurring dimethylated stilbene (chemical formula <code>C16H16O3</code>) found in small amounts in blueberries and certain heartwood extracts. Because methylation increases lipophilicity and metabolic stability, pterostilbene achieves higher tissue penetration and often greater oral exposure in preclinical models than resveratrol. Typical supplemental doses in the U.S. market range from <strong>50–250 mg/day</strong>; specialized formulations (lipid vehicles, micronized or cyclodextrin complexes) increase apparent bioavailability several-fold. Clinical evidence is strongest at the preclinical and small human-trial level for antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and modest lipid-modifying effects, while high-quality large randomized outcome trials are lacking. Use is generally well tolerated at common doses but theoretical interactions with anticoagulants and drugs cleared by UGT/SULT conjugation or certain CYP enzymes necessitate medical review. This guide compiles chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence, dosing guidance, safety, US market considerations, and practical product-selection criteria for clinicians, researchers, and informed consumers.

Glutathion

L-γ-Glutamyl-L-cysteinyl-glycine

Glutathione (GSH) is the body’s principal intracellular thiol antioxidant — typical hepatocyte concentrations range from <strong>1–10 mM</strong>. This tripeptide (γ‑glutamyl‑cysteinyl‑glycine) is essential for neutralizing reactive oxygen species, supporting phase II detoxification, and maintaining protein thiol redox status. Endogenously synthesized in the liver and other tissues, glutathione exists in reduced (GSH) and oxidized disulfide (GSSG) forms; a high intracellular <strong>GSH:GSSG ratio (>100:1 in healthy cells)</strong> signals robust redox homeostasis. Clinically, strategies to raise intracellular GSH focus on supplying precursors (notably N‑acetylcysteine), protected oral formulations (liposomal GSH), or intravenous administration when immediate plasma elevation is required. Typical oral supplement doses range from <strong>250–500 mg/day</strong>, while IV research protocols use single doses from <strong>600–2400 mg</strong>. This article provides an authoritative, evidence‑based encyclopedia entry: biochemistry, pharmacokinetics, eight+ science‑backed benefits, dosing guidance, safety, drug interactions, product‑quality criteria for the US market (FDA/NIH context), and actionable consumer recommendations.

Liposomales Glutathion

Liposomal L-Glutathione

Liposomal glutathione is an oral formulation that encapsulates reduced L‑glutathione (GSH) in phospholipid vesicles to protect the tripeptide from gastrointestinal degradation and enhance systemic delivery. Clinical and biochemical data suggest liposomal delivery may increase circulating and intracellular GSH markers versus plain oral GSH, with typical consumer doses of <strong>150–1,000 mg/day</strong> (commonly 250–500 mg/day). This premium encyclopedia article summarizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, eight science‑backed benefits, dosing guidance, safety, drug interactions, selection criteria for US consumers, and research gaps — using consolidated biochemical principles and formulation data. Note: I used the supplied comprehensive research dossier as the primary source for all mechanistic and quantitative statements; to append live PubMed/DOI citations (2020–2026) please reply with permission for PubMed access and I will embed verifiable PMIDs/DOIs on request.

N-Acetyl-Cystein

N-Acetyl-L-Cysteine

N-Acetyl Cysteine (NAC) is a sulfur-containing amino acid derivative with a molecular formula of C₅H₉NO₃S and a molar mass of 163.19 g/mol, synthesized by N-acetylation of L-cysteine. First developed in the 1960s as a mucolytic agent, NAC has since evolved into one of the most clinically versatile nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals available. Its defining biochemical role is dual: it acts as a direct thiol antioxidant — scavenging reactive oxygen species through its free sulfhydryl group — and as the rate-limiting precursor for intracellular glutathione biosynthesis, the body's most abundant endogenous antioxidant. These properties underpin NAC's established use as the gold-standard antidote for acetaminophen overdose, its mucolytic applications in COPD and chronic bronchitis, and a rapidly expanding body of research spanning psychiatric disorders, male fertility, renal protection, and respiratory infections. Oral bioavailability of intact NAC is low (approximately 4–10%), yet effective glutathione augmentation occurs through rapid deacetylation to cysteine. Available in oral capsule, effervescent, intravenous, and nebulized forms, NAC is generally well tolerated at supplement doses of 600–1,200 mg/day, with gastrointestinal upset being the most common adverse effect. In the US market, NAC occupies a unique and contested regulatory space between pharmaceutical drug and dietary supplement under DSHEA.

Alpha-Liponsäure

1,2-Dithiolane-3-pentanoic acid

Alpha‑lipoic acid (ALA) is a chiral organosulfur antioxidant and mitochondrial cofactor used clinically and as a nutraceutical; typical supplemental doses range from <strong>100–600 mg/day</strong>, with intravenous regimens of <strong>600 mg/day</strong> used in supervised settings for diabetic neuropathy. This guide synthesizes biochemical identity, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, evidence-based clinical benefits, safety, drug interactions, product-selection criteria for the U.S. market (FDA/NIH context), and practical dosing recommendations. It is written for clinicians, pharmacists, and informed consumers seeking a rigorous, actionable reference.

R-Liponsäure

R-(+)-α-Lipoic Acid

R-Lipoic Acid (R-ALA) is the biologically active enantiomer of alpha-lipoic acid, a mitochondrially synthesized antioxidant cofactor that participates in oxidative metabolism and cellular redox regulation. R-ALA is commonly used as a dietary supplement for metabolic support, insulin sensitivity, neuropathy, and antioxidant protection. This premium article synthesizes biochemical mechanisms, pharmacokinetics, modern clinical data (drafted from knowledge to mid-2024), dosing guidance for US consumers, safety, drug interactions, quality criteria, and practical purchasing tips. Note: this document is a thoroughly researched, evidence-focused draft based on literature up to June 2024; live verification of 2020–2026 primary study PMIDs/DOIs and market statistics requires web access and is available on request.

Astaxanthin

3,3'-Dihydroxy-β,β-carotene-4,4'-dione

<p><strong>Astaxanthin is a red keto-xanthophyll carotenoid commonly dosed at <em>4–12 mg/day</em> in human supplements and sourced commercially from the microalga <em>Haematococcus pluvialis</em>.</strong></p> <p>Astaxanthin is a potent lipid-soluble antioxidant with membrane-spanning properties that distinguish it from other carotenoids. It is used in nutraceutical formulations for skin photoprotection, exercise recovery, ocular fatigue, cardiometabolic modulation, and sperm quality support. Natural astaxanthin from <em>H. pluvialis</em> is predominantly the 3S,3'S stereoisomer and occurs as mono- and di-fatty-acid esters; synthetic astaxanthin is a racemic mixture of stereoisomers.</p> <p>This premium encyclopedia entry summarizes chemistry, pharmacokinetics, mechanisms, eight clinical benefit areas with quantitative endpoints, safety, drug interactions, evidence strength, product selection tips for the US market (FDA/NIH context), and practical dosing guidance. It is written for clinicians, researchers, and informed consumers seeking a rigorous, actionable guide.</p>

Hyaluronsäure

Hyaluronan

Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a naturally occurring linear glycosaminoglycan present in skin, synovial fluid and the eye that provides viscoelasticity and water retention; modern supplements and medical products use molecular-weight–defined sodium hyaluronate from microbial fermentation. This guide explains HA’s chemistry, pharmacokinetics, molecular mechanisms, evidence-based clinical benefits, optimal dosing ranges, safety, drug interactions, product selection criteria for the U.S. market, and practical consumer recommendations. Note: I currently cannot retrieve live PubMed PMIDs/DOIs; primary historical and review sources are listed and I can fetch exact study identifiers on request.